UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


SOCIETY  AND  ITS 
PROBLEMS 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE 
PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIOLOGY 


BY 

GROVE  SAMUEL  DOW 

Professor  of  Sociology  in  the  University  of  Denver 


47662 

NEW  YORK 

THOMAS  Y.  CROWELL  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1920, 
By  GROVE  SAMUEL  DOW 


Copyright,  1922, 


By  THOMAS  Y.  CROWELL  COMPANY 

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PRINTING 


Printed  in  the  "United  States  of  America 


TO 

(ftrnnmings  (Sriffitly 


UNDER   WHOSE  INSPIRATION 
THE  STUDY  OF  SOCIOLOGY  WAS  BEGUN, 

AND   WHOSE   FRIENDSHIP 

HAS   SINCE   BEEN  AN   AID   AND   GUIDE, 

THIS  BOOK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED. 


PREFACE 

The  plan  of  the  present  book  is  to  give  the  student  who 
takes  but  one  course  in  sociology  a  general  idea  of  the 
whole  science,  and  to  give  to  the  student  who  continues  the 
subject  a  foundation  for  advanced  work.  Emphasis  is 
placed  upon  those  subjects  that  will  be  of  greatest  practical 
value  to  the  student,  such  as  immigration,  the  race  ques- 
tion, the  family,  poverty,  and  crime,  although  other  phases 
of  the  science,  such  as  the  evolution  of  institutions  and  the 
general  principles  of  social  theory,  are  not  neglected. 

After  taking  up  the  definition  of  sociology,  the  author 
discusses  one  by  one  certain  of  the  fundamental  problems. 
First  comes  a  study  of  population,  birth  and  death  rates, 
and  movements  of  population.  This  leads  to  those  per- 
plexing elements,  immigration,  the  overcrowding  of  cities, 
and  race  antagonisms.  The  next  two  parts  deal  with  society 
and  its  problems  from  within — the  evolution  of  the  family 
and  the  home,  religion,  ethics,  and  education,  social  control 
and  organization.  Then  come  its  maladjustments,  poverty, 
crime,  immorality,  and  the  treatment  of  defectives. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  author's  purpose  has  been 
to  present  a  broad  view  of  the  fundamentals  as  the  first 
step  to  the  study  of  sociology  itself.  At  the  end  of  each 
chapter  a  list  of  references  is  given,  which  will  broaden 
the  reader 's  equipment  on  any  special  line  in  which  he  may 
be  interested. 

While  this  book  is  primarily  intended  for  students  of 
sociology,  it  is  by  no  means  limited  in  its  appeal  to  them. 
It  presupposes  no  previous  training  in  the  subject,  and 
for  this  reason  we  hope  will  prove  equally  valuable  to 
students  and  general  readers  who  are  interested  in  the 
problems  confronting  modern  society.  The  author  en- 
deavors to  show  that  our  handling  of  all  these  problems 
is  constantly  on  a  higher  and  more  enlightened  plane.  He 

vii 


viii  Preface 

takes  an  optimistic  view  of  present-day  society  because  of 
this  fact ;  and  while  recognizing  that  many  serious  problems 
yet  remain  unsolved,  the  method  of  public  approach  to  such 
matters  is  constantly  more  rational  and  efficient. 

Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared  [1920],  the 
author  has  found  opportunity  to  make  a  thorough  revision 
of  the  entire  text ;  especially  in  the  light  of  statistics  made 
available  by  the  1920  census  which  were  not  then  at  hand. 
Other  parts  have  been  revised  or  enlarged  to  suit  certain 
classroom  needs,  as  the  book  has  been  tested  out  at  many 
colleges.  For  example,  an  entirely  new  chapter  on  Heredity 
has  been  added.  As  a  result  of  this  revision  both  at  the 
author's  hands  and  that  of  collaborators,  the  entire  text 
has  been  reset. 

The  author  wishes  to  make  his  general  acknowledgment 
for  all  this  valuable  aid;  also  for  many  facts  and  opinions 
on  the  subject  as  found  hi  the  volumes  listed  in  the 
Bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  book.  He  wishes  to  express 
his  appreciation  especially  to  Professor  L.  J.  Mills  for 
valued  aid  in  revising  the  manuscript;  to  Professor  O.  C. 
Bradbury,  Professor  of  Biology  in  Baylor  University,  for 
his  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  chapter  on  Heredity ; 
to  the  many  teachers  of  sociology  who  have  expressed  inter- 
est in  the  book ;  to  Mrs.  Dow  for  her  timely  suggestions  and 
aid  throughout  the  entire  work;  and  to  Mr.  J.  Walker 
McSpadden  for  expert  editorial  revision. 

G.  S.  Dow. 

April  5,  1922 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 

PAOB 

THE  NATURE  OP  SOCIOLOGY 1 

What  is  sociology — Different  Conceptions  of  Sociology — 
What  is  Society — Complexity  of  the  Social  Process — 
The  Relation  of.  Sociology  to  the  Other  Sciences — 
Sociology  a  General  Science. 

PART  Two 
POPULATION 
CHAPTER  II 

MAN  AND  NATURE — THE  INFLUENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  EN- 
VIRONMENT UPON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SOCIETY       .18 
Influence  Upon  Population — Effect  on  the  Life  of  the 
People — Effect    Upon   Economic    Development — Effect 
Upon  Human  Institutions — Influence  Upon  the  Family 
— Influence  Upon  the  Character  of  the  People — Influence 
Upon  Human  Migration — Effect  on  Recreation — Influ- 
ence  on    Social   Progress — Influence   of   Water   Upon 
Man — Influence  of  Mountain   Environment — Influence 
of  Plains,  Steppes,  and  Deserts — Influence  of  Climate. 

CHAPTER  III 

VARIATION,  HEREDITY,  AND  EUGENICS 37 

Theories  and  Laws  of  Variation  and  Heredity — Difficul- 
ties in  the  Study  of  Human  Heredity — Peculiarities 
Noted  in  Human  Heredity — Application  of  Heredity  to 
Social  Problems — Eugenics. 


x  Contents 

CHAPTER  IV 

PAQB 

INCREASE  OP  POPULATION 54 

The  Malthusian  Theory  of  Population — Increase  in  Popu- 
lation of  Some  of  the  Leading  Modern  Nations — In- 
crease of  Population  in  the  United  States — Causes  for 
Decline  in  Birth  Rates — Decrease  in  Death  Rates. 


CHAPTER  V 

HUMAN  MIGRATION 69 

Motives  for  Migration — Westward  Movement  of  Civiliza- 
tion. 

CHAPTER  VI 

IMMIGRATION 76 

American  Immigration  a  Part  of  the  Movement  of  Races — 
Causes  of  Immigration — Irish  Immigration — German — 
French — Scandinavian — Changes  from  Northern  and 
Western  Europe  to  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe — 
Italian  Immigration — Slavic — Greek — Armenian,  Assy- 
rian, and  Syrian — Portuguese — French  Canadian — 
Japanese — Chinese — Mexican — Hindu — Tides  of  Immi- 
gration— A  Further  Check — A  Look  Ahead. 


CHAPTER  VII 

IMMIGRATION  (continued) 106 

Effect  of  Immigration  Upon  the  Population  of  the  United 
States — Effect  of  Immigration  Upon  Industry — Effect 
of  Immigration  Upon  Labor — Social  Effects  of  Immi- 
gration— Political  Effects  of  Immigration — Legislative 
Restrictions  Upon  Immigration — Proposed  Legislation 
— Arguments  for  Restriction — Future  Policy. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

URBAN  MIGRATION 135 

Causes  of  Urban  Migration — Forces  Operating  Against 
this  Migration — Problems  of  the  Country — Problems  of 
the  City. 


Contents  xi 

CHAPTER  IX 

PAGE 

THE  AMERICAN  RACE  PROBLEM 157 

Increase  of  Negro  Population  in  the  United  States — 
Urban  vs.  Rural  Population — Increase  and  Distribution 
of  Blacks  and  Mulattoes — Influence  of  Past  History 
Upon  the  Negro — Economic  Progress  of  the  Negro — 
Negro  Education — The  Political  Condition — Negro 
Problems — Proposed  Solutions — Impossible  Solutions — 
Possible  Solutions. 

PART  THREE 

EVOLUTION  OF  SOCIAL  INSTITUTIONS 
CHAPTER  X 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  FAMILY       .......     189 

The  Family  a  Social  Unit— The  Horde — Matriarchy— 
Patriarchy — Monogamy — Morgan's  Classification  of  the 
Family — Forms  of  Marriage — Three  Distinct  Stages  of 
the  Family — Influence  of  Christianity — Stability  of 
Marriage — Position  of  Woman  Under  Different  Re- 
ligions— Conclusion. 

CHAPTER  XI 

PROBLEMS  OF  THE  MODERN  FAMILY 

Race  Suicide — Divorce — Rapid  Increase  of  Divorce  in  the 
United  States — Who  Are  Divorced? — Grounds  for  Di- 
vorce— Causes  for  the  Increase  in  Divorce  in  the  United 
States — Results  of  Divorce — Remedies  for  Divorce — 
Family  Income — Spending  of  Income — Family  Budgets 
— Engel's  Laws — Infant  Mortality. 

CHAPTER  XII 

SOCIAL  ACHIEVEMENT 247 

Stages  of  Social  Evolution — The  Mind  of  Primitive 
Man — The  Development  of  Language — Inventions — 
Evolution  of  Property — Evolution  of  Industry — Social 
Effects  of  Industrial  Development. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  STATE 268 

Origin  of  the  State,  Different  Theories — Factors  Entering 
Into  the  Development  of  the  State — Functions  of  the 
State — Evolution  of  the  Forms  of  Government. 


xii  Contents 


CHAPTER  XIV 

RELIGION  AND  ETHICS C284 

Evolution  of  Religion — Characteristics  of  Primitive  Re- 
ligion— The  Growth  of  National  Religion  from  Tribal 
Religion — The  Religions  of  Early  Babylon  and  Egypt — 
The  Religion  of  Ancient  Greece  and  Rome — The  Great 
World  Religions  of  To-day — Evolution  of  Ethics. 


X 


CHAPTER  XV 

EDUCATION 

Primitive  Education — Oriental  Education — Greek  Educa- 
tion— Roman  Education — Early  Christian  Education — 
Education  During  the  Middle  Ages — The  Renaissance 
and  Reformation — Modern  Times — Educational  Re- 
forms— American  Educational  Development — European 
Educational  Systems — Scientific  Tendency  in  Education 
— Present  Tendencies. 

PART  FOUR 

ANALYSIS  OF  SOCIETY 
0  CHAPTER  XVI 

INSTINCTS,  FEELING,  AND  INTELLECT 345 

Food  Instinct — Instincts  Connected  with  Reproduction — 
Instinct  of  Self-Preservation — Instinct  of  Pugnacity 
and  Resentment — Instinct  of  Sociability — Instinct  of 
Possession — Instinct  of  Construction — Instinct  of  Im- 
itation— Instincts  of  Self-Assertion  and  Self-Abase- 
ment — Play — Feeling — Intellect. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

SOCIAL  INTEREST 361 

Physical  Interests — Economic  Interests — Sociability  In- 
terests— Recreational  Interests — Religious  Interests — < 
Political  Interests — ^Esthetic  or  Artistic  Interests — In- 
tellectual Interests — Group  Interests. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

SOCIAL  CONTROL 

Means  of  Social  Control — Public  Opinion — Law — Religion 
— Education — Custom  and  Habit — Art — Personality — 
Ceremony — Other  Means  of  Control — Gei-sral  Char- 
acteristics of  Social  Control. 


Contents  xiii 

CHAPTER  XIX 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

Communication — Social    Classes — Aim   and    Purpose 
Society — Social  Maladjustment. 

PART  FIVE 
SOCIAL  MALADJUSTMENT 

CHAPTER  XX 

POVERTY 419 

Poverty  a  condition  of  Maladjustment — What  is  Poverty? 
— Extent  of  Poverty — Objective  Causes  of  Poverty — 
Subjective  Causes — Poverty  Cumulative — Causes  of 
Poverty  Also  Results  of  Poverty — Other  Effects  of 
Poverty  —  Child  Labor  —  Child  Neglect  —  Subjective 
Women  Industry — Degeneracy. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

TREATMENT  OF  POVERTY 463 

Historical  Treatment  of  Poverty — Charity  Taken  Ovej  by 
the  State — English  Poor  Laws — American  Treatment  of 
Poverty — The  Almshouse — Other  Relief  Institutions — 
Outdoor  Relief — Charity  Organization — The  Elberfeld 
System — Public  vs.  Private  Relief — The  Trend  of 
Modern  Charity — Programme  for  the  Future  Preven- 
tion of  Poverty. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

CRIME 485 

What  is  Crime? — Different  Kinds  of  Criminals — Extent 
of  Crime — Cost  of  Crime — Causes  of  Crime — Criminal 
Psychology — Italian  School  of  Criminal  Anthropology 
— Investigations  of  Goring. 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  CRIMINAL 503 

Theory  of  Revenge — Repression — Reformation — Preven- 
tion— Different  Types  of  Prisons — Prison  Work — 
Juvenile  Courts — Indeterminate  Sentence,  Probation 
and  Parole — Honor  System — The  County  Jail — Sepa- 
rate Prisons  for  Women. — Scientific  Attitude  Towards 
Crijcae. 
•  Hoc*. 


xiv  Contents 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

PAGE 

IMMORALITY 522 

History  of  Prostitution — Causes  of  Prostitution — Effects 
of  Immorality — Treatment  of  Prostitution. 

CHAPTER  XXV 

DEFECTIVES 537 

Feeble-mindedness — Extent  of  Feeble-mindedness — Feeble- 
mindedness and  Crime  and  Vice — Feeble-mindedness  and 
Poverty — Feeble-mindedness  and  Education — Causes  of 
Feeble-mindedness — Treatment  of  Feeble-mindedness — 
Blind,  Deaf,  etc. — Insanity — Treatment  of  the  Insane — 
Epilepsy. 

PART  Six 

SOCIAL  PROGRESS 
CHAPTER  XXVI 

PROGRESS         

Conception  of  Progress — Social  Institutions  Becoming 
More  Useful — Society  Functioning  More  Perfectly — 
Social  Maladjustments  Becoming  less  Harmful. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 565 

INDEX  579 


SOCIETY  AND  ITS  PROBLEMS 

PART  ONE 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  NATURE  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

What  Is  Sociology? — While  it  is  not  unusual  nowadays 
to  begin  a  text-book  without  supplying  a  definition,  the 
author  considers  it  entirely  unsafe  to  start  the  tyro 
in  the  science  of  sociology  without  furnishing  him  with 
some  idea  of  its  nature.  Nearly  every  student  enter- 
ing an  introductory  course  in  sociology  has  a  more  or  less 
hazy  conception  of  the  subject ;  he  thinks  that  it  will  prob- 
ably take  up  some  such  topics  as  poverty,  crime,  vice  and 
intemperance,  and  that  it  will  include  an  investigation  of 
slums  and  a  consideration  of  other  causes  of  the  miseries 
of  humanity.  Yet  if  this  same  student  were  asked  to  point 
out  the  difference  between  sociology  and  socialism,  he 
would  probably  be  at  a  loss. 

There  are  as  many  definitions  of  sociology  as  there 
are  text-books,  and  although  the  majority  of  these 
definitions  are  more  or  less  incomplete,  the  author  hesi- 
tates to  add  another  to  the  collection.  Sociology  has  been 
defined  as  "the  science  of  society,"  "the  scientific  study 
of  society, "  "  the  science  of  social  phenomena, "  ' '  the  study 
of  human  association,"  "the  science  of  the  social  process," 
"the  science  of  the  social  relation,"  and  as  "the  science 
which  treats  of  the  phenomena  of  society  arising  from  the 
association  of  mankind."  Probably  the  clearest  and  best 
definition  given  to  date  is  that  furnished  by  Professor 
Ellwood1  who  calls  it  "the  science  which  deals  with  hu- 

1  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  p.  13, 


2  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

man  association,  its  origin,  development,  forms  and  func- 
tions. ' ' 

Different  Conceptions  of  Sociology. — The  reason  for  the 
differences  in  the  definitions  of  sociology  lies  largely  in 
the  various  conceptions  held  by  sociologists  of  the  scope 
of  the  science.  Some  look  upon  sociology  as  an  inclusive 
science,  embracing  all  the  fields  of  human  endeavor; 
others  ascribe  to  it  but  a  limited  field,  restricting  it  to 
a  technical  analysis  of  the  forms  of  association  or  to 
a  classification  of  the  different  groups  found  among 
men.  Therefore,  before  attempting  another  definition  of 
sociology  and  outlining  what  we  shall  expect  to  study, 
we  should  take  a  glance  at  these  existing  conceptions, 
or,  perhaps  we  ought  to  say,  groups  of  conceptions  held 
by  the  leading  sociologists. 

1.  Sociology  as  a  Study   of  Social  Problems. — As  we 
suggested  in  our  first  paragraph,  the  idea  that  sociology 
is  a  study  of  social  problems  is  the  notion  held  by  the 
majority  of  those  who  have  not  studied  sociology,  and 
unfortunately  by  a  few  who  have,  or  at  least  think  that 
they   have,    studied   the   science.      "While    sociology   un- 
doubtedly does  treat  of  the  evils  found  in  society  and 
of  their  remedies,  it  is  not  confined  to  them.     Sociology 
treats  of  the  normal  as  well  as  the  abnormal ;  it  analyzes 
the  healthy  phases  of  society  as  well  as  the  unhealthy; 
in  fact,  it  regards  the  abnormal,   unhealthy  phases  of 
society  as  examples  of  maladjustment,  as  examples  of 
what  ought  not  to  be;  it  considers  the  evils  of  society 
as  exceptions  to  the  normal  evolution  of  society.     Such 
phases  it  relegates  to  one  side,  or  one  corner  of  the  field 
of  the  science.    Different  branches  of  sociology,  such  as 
philanthropy  or  criminology,   are  devoted  exclusively  to 
these  unwholesome,  abnormal  elements  of  society.     While 
these,  without  doubt,  are  among  the  most  popular  parts  of 
the  science,  they  are  by  no  means  all  of  it.    The  attraction 
which  these  phases  have  for  many  people  accounts  for  the 
widespread  misconception. 

2.  Sociology  as  a  Theoretical  Analysis  of  Human  Associa- 
tion.— A  view  held,  not  by  those  ignorant  of  the  science, 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  3 

but  by  professed  sociologists,  is  that  sociology  is  an  analy- 
sis of  human  association.  The  nature  of  this  analysis 
depends  upon  the  sociologist.  Professor  Simmel  regards 
sociology  as  the  science  of  the  order  or  organization  of 
society.  Professor  Small  limits  it  almost  exclusively  to 
the  study  of  groups  and  group  action.  Professor  Gid- 
dings  has  worked  out  a  very  elaborate  system,  based 
chiefly  upon  the  sociability  trait  of  mankind.  Others  treat 
it  as  a  study  of  human  interests  and  of  the  forces  that 
control  human  action.  Still  others  limit  it  to  a  study 
of  the  present  organization  of  society.  The  criticism  of 
these  conceptions  is  much  the  same  as  that  made  of  the 
popular  idea — they  take  up  only  one  side  of  the  science. 
Each  type  of  treatment  is  unquestionably  sociology;  but 
each  is  too  narrow  to  stand  for  the  whole  science.  Each 
deals  with  only  one  phase  of  the  science.  The  trouble 
lies  in  the  fact  that  sociology  is  a  new  science;  when  a 
sociologist  develops  a  new  theory,  he  tends  to  subordinate 
everything  social  to  it ;  so  he  tries  to  build  a  whole  science 
upon  what  ought  to  be  only  the  foundation  of  one  wing 
of  the  structure,  instead  of  the  whole  building. 

3.  Sociology  as  the  Study  of  Civilization. — Professor 
"Ward,  one  of  America's  foremost  sociologists,  while  admit- 
ting the  importance  of  other  phases  of  the  science,  confined 
his  attention  to  the  development  of  human  institutions,  such 
as  the  state,  the  family,  religion,  language,  and  education, 
in  other  words  sociology  as  a  study  of  civilization.  While 
these  subjects  are  among  the  most  important  phases  of  the 
science,  it  should  be  understood  that  they  include  political 
science,  economics,  and  history,  as  well  as  sociology.  More- 
over with  such  limitations  as  above,  it  is  not  possible  to 
give  sufficient  attention  to  present  conditions — a  subject 
in  which  the  ordinary  student  of  the  science  is  much  more 
interested  than  he  is  in  the  state  of  society  twenty-five 
thousand  years  ago,  for  he  looks  naturally  to  it  for  aid 
in  living  the  life  set  before  him.  The  study  of  civilization 
gives  us,  however,  our  ideas  in  regard  to  the  evolution 
of  society ;  and  herein  lies  its  chief  value. 


4  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

4.  Sociology  as  a  Social  Philosophy. — Another  concep- 
tion quite  often  held  is  that  sociology  treats  society  in 
much  the  same  way  as  psychology  treats  the  individual — 
that  it  is  a  study  of  the  social  mind,  an  interpretation 
of  what  man  does,  why  he  does  it,  and  how  he  does  it. 
This  again  is  a  part  of  sociology,  but  not  all.  This,  while 
an  important  phase  of  the  science,  is  perhaps  the  most 
difficult  one  and  for  that  reason  has  been  less  fully  in- 
vestigated than  any  other. 

As  has  already  been  indicated,  sociology  is  not  one  but 
all  of  these  things.  Sociology  deals  with  human  associa- 
tion, with  the  origin,  the  development,  forms,  and  func- 
tions of  society.  It  includes  as  subjects  of  study  the 
origin  and  development  of  human  institutions ;  the  forms 
through  which  society  has  passed;  the  organization  of 
society  to-day,  and  present  day  conditions ;  interests  which 
prompt  human  action;  the  forces  which  exist  in  and 
control  society;  and  the  social  mind. 

Sociology  may  be  divided  into  theoretical  and  practical, 
or  as  they  are  often  called,  pure  and  applied.  The  former 
deals  with  the  origin  and  development  of  institutions,  the 
analysis  of  human  interests,  social  forces,  and  social 
psychology;  the  latter  takes  up  the  conditions  found  in 
society  to-day  and  generally  gives  special  attention  to  the 
problem  side.  This  volume  will  attempt  to  cover  both 
theoretical  and  practical  sociology,  but  will  give  special 
emphasis  to  the  practical  side. 

What  Is  Society? — As  we  have  stated,  sociology  is  the 
study  of  human  association — society;  and  before  we  go 
any  further,  we  must  have  a  common  understanding  of 
the  meaning  of  this  term.  Here  again  we  find  a  difference 
of  opinion.  Some  sociologists  have  looked  upon  society  as 
merely  another  term  for  humanity,  or  mankind.  Others 
have  treated  it  as  synonymous  with  the  term  nation;  this, 
however,  is  not  the  commonly  accepted  view;  in  fact,  it  is 
one  generally  discarded.  Others  look  upon  society  as  stand- 
ing for  a  certain  select  or  special  aggregation  or  cultural 
group.  Sometimes  the  word  is  used  as  referring  to  social 
intercourse.  It  is,  however,  becoming  the  accepted  practice 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  5 

in  sociology  to  consider  society  as  meaning  the  group, 
that  is,  an  indefinite  number  of  persons  bound  together 
by  more  or  less  permanent  relations,  as  a  family,  a  club, 
a  fraternity,  a  class,  a  party  thrown  together  at  random 
in  travel,  or  in  general,  any  body  of  persons  united  by 
some  tie,  even  though  that  tie  be  weak  and  transitory. 
Ellwood  defines  society  as  "any  group  of  psychically  in- 
terested individuals. ' ' 2  Yet  at  times  society  does  un- 
doubtedly refer  to  the  nation,  to  a  race,  or  even  to 
humanity,  but  even  then  it  regards  the  nation,  the  race 
and  humanity  as  expanded  groups.  It  is  more  concerned 
with  the  phenomena  of  the  association  of  the  members 
of  the  group  than  with  the  individuals  composing  the 
group. 

Professor  Giddings  has  very  carefully  analyzed  the 
modes  of  association  into  eight  different  kinds,  which  he 
calls  the  sympathetic,  congenial,  approbational,  despotic, 
authoritative,  conspirital,  contractional,  and  idealistic.3 
While  this  scheme  is  elaborate  and  shows  much  ingenuity, 
it  is  not  specially  helpful,  as  it  tends  to  confuse  rather 
than  to  clarify. 

Complexity  of  the  Social  Process. — The  social  order 
cannot  be  explained  by  any  one  principle  or  set  of  principles, 
or  shown  to  be  the  result  of  any  one  force,  as  Professor 
Tarde,  for  instance,  tried  to  demonstrate  by  using  as  the 
key  to  all  social  phenomena  the  one  principle,  imitation. 
Neither  will  any  such  key  as  "consciousness  of  kind" 
or  "occupational  group"  unlock  the  door.  Human 
association  is  too  complicated  and  intricate  to  be  so  ex- 
plained. Different  forces  are  constantly  at  work  in 
society,  some  in  co-operation,  and  some  in  opposition  to 
each  other.  Too  many  interests  prompt  human  action 
to  be  explained  by  any  particular  set  of  motives.  But 
though  the  organization  of  society  can  be  reduced  to  some 
sort  of  order  and  system,  it  is  by  no  means  an  easy  thing ' 
to  do.  While  it  might  be  more  logical,  therefore,  to  take 
up  the  analysis  of  society  at  this  point  than  to  postpone 

a  Ellwood,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  p.  13. 
•  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  vol.  X,  pp.  161-176. 


6  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

it  until  later,  we  shall  make  a  study  of  the  people  that 
make  up  society  and  the  development  of  the  institutions 
in  society,  before  we  analyze  the  interests  that  prompt 
men  to  act  and  the  forces  that  control  human  action. 

However,  we  may  notice  here  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating the  complexity  of  society,  the  principle  of  co- 
operation, which  is  always  at  work,  whether  consciously 
or  unconsciously,  willingly  or  unwillingly.  In  order  to 
get  a  conception  of  this  principle,  one  has  only  to  stop 
to  consider  the  number  of  persons  who  take  part  in  pro- 
ducing any  one  commodity,  bread,  for  illustration,  which 
sold  for  five  cents  a  loaf  for  years.  Not  only  the  grocer 
who  sold  the  bread  and  the  baker  who  made  the  loaf, 
but  also  the  railway  employees  who  handled  the  flour; 
the  miller  who  ground  the  wheat;  the  men  who  made 
the  machinery  used  in  the  mill,  the  cars  on  the  railroad, 
or  even  the  mill  itself,  and  those  who  laid  the  track  for 
the  railroads;  the  other  railway  employees  who  carried 
the  wheat  to  the  mill;  the  farmer  who  grew  the  grain; 
the  men  who  made  the  farm  machinery  used  in  raising 
and  harvesting  the  grain ;  the  miners  who  brought  the 
ore  out  of  the  ground,  and  the  lumbermen  who  cut  the 
lumber  used  in  the  machinery,  as  well  as  the  men  em- 
ployed in  the  more  immediate  process  of  handling  the 
grain  or  flour — all  helped  to  produce  the  five-cent  loaf 
of  bread.  In  fact,  we  should  be  obliged  to  go  back  several 
years  to  find  all  of  the  persons  who  had  a  part  in  the 
production  of  that  one  item. 

The  same  is  true  of  every  other  commodity  produce^. 
It  is  a  complicated  world  in  which  we  live,  a  vast  ma- 
chinery which  man  has  constructed.  Human  association 
is  too  intricate  to  lend  itself  easily  to  explanation.  Man 
cannot  be  isolated;  he  cannot  live  without  his  fellow 
beings.  He  must  come  into  contact  with  them. 

The  Relation  of  Sociology  to  the  Other  Sciences. — 
When  sociologists,  like  Comte  and  Ward,  attempt  to  clas- 
sify all  the  sciences,  they  generally  rank  sociology  either 
as  the  leading  science,  as  well  as  the  most  important  and 
advanced,  or  else  assert  that  sociology  includes  the  bulk 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  7 

of  the  other  sciences,  especially  those  most  closely  related 
to  it — economics,  political  science,  religion,  ethics,  history, 
and  anthropology.  The  principal  result  of  these  extrava- 
gant claims  has  been  to  antagonize  the  other  sciences, 
and  to  cause  sociology  to  be  discredited  because  of  its 
laying  claims  to  fields  of  thought  which  it  not  only  cannot 
adequately  cover,  but  to  which  it  has  no  valid  claim.  For 
a  new  science  suddenly  to  appear  and  appropriate  to 
itself,  on  the  basis  of  a  new  classification,  subjects  which 
have  been  cultivated  and  worked  over  for  long  periods 
of  time,  is  too  much  to  be  conceded,  and  the  attempt 
at  appropriation  has  hindered  rather  than  advanced 
sociology. 

In  the  present  study  we  shall  make  no  such  assumption 
for  sociology;  we  shall  not  try  to  prove  that  it  is  the 
scientia  scientiarum,  or  that  it  includes  within  its  domain 
any  of  the  older  sciences.  Sociology  has  its  own 
boundaries,  which  include  a  territory  large  enough  to 
afford  sociologists  ample  room  for  work  and  investigation. 
Sociology  does,  however,  border  on  other  sciences  and 
invade  their  fields  at  times,  but  no  more  than  they,  in 
turn,  encroach  upon  its  domain. 

There  is  what  might  be  called  a  fund  of  human  knowl- 
edge from  which  all  sciences  draw,  a  sort  of  common 
forest  to  which  each  goes  for  its  raw  material.  Sociology 
takes  from  this  common  source  of  supply  facts  of  which 
other  sciences  also  avail  themselves,  and  uses  them  as 
timber  in  the  building  of  its  own  structures.  It  may  take 
the  same  information  and  dispose  of  it  in  a  manner  en- 
tirely different  from  that  of  some  other  sciences.  For 
example,  we  know  that  the  Normans  conquered  England ; 
history  makes  use  of  that  fact  for  its  purposes;  so  does 
sociology  in  illustrating  its  theory  of  social  assimilation 
or  the  mingling  of  races.  Art,  religion,  ethics,  economics 
and  political  science  may  make  use  of  this  same  fact, 
but  each  will  use  it  in  its  own  way,  from  its  own  point 
of  view.  Sociology  makes  use  of  investigations  of  other 
sciences,  such  as  chemistry,  geology  and  economics;  but 
it,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  investigations  into  such  ques- 


8  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

tions  as  standards  of  living,  human  interests,  causes  and 
conditions  of  poverty,  and  the  like,  the  results  of  which 
are,  in  turn,  used  by  other  sciences.  Social  research,  the 
accumulation  of  new  data,  or  interpretation  of  existing 
data,  is  now  regarded  as  the  principal  method  of 
sociology.  Because  sociology  considers  problems  and  con- 
ditions which  other  sciences,  especially  economics  and 
history,  do  not  know  how  to  handle,  it  has  often  been 
called  "the  science  of  left-overs";  however,  this  accusa- 
tion is  no  more  true  of  sociology  than  it  is  of  other 
sciences,  except  in  so  far  as  sociologists  have  at  times 
been  puzzled  to  know  how  to  limit  their  field  and  to 
classify  their  material.  Sociology  has  also  been  accused 
of  being  the  biggest  thief  among  the  sciences,  in  that 
it  steals  all  it  likes,  and  rejects  everything  it  does  not 
want,  or  know  how  to  use.  This  arraignment  has  been 
made  more  in  the  spirit  of  jealousy  than  from  any  other 
motive,  because  of  the  attractions  sociology  presents  and 
the  number  of  disciples  it  has  acquired. 

In  order  to  observe  more  closely  the  position  of 
sociology  in  regard  to  the  other  sciences,  let  us  consider 
it  in  relation  to  some  of  its  nearest  neighbors. 

1.  Sociology  and  Economics. — Possibly  the  nearest  neigh- 
bor to  sociology  is  economics,  the  science  of  wealth,  which 
deals  with  the  phenomena  resulting  from  the  wealth-get- 
ting and  wealth-using  activities  of  man — a  province  much 
more  definitely  marked  out  and  limited  than  that  of 
sociology.  Economics  takes  up  the  production,  distribu- 
tion, and  consumption  of  wealth,  and  works  out  laws  or 
principles  in  regard  to  such  activities.  When  sociology 
has  to  deal  with  problems  or  conditions  involving  the  dis- 
tribution of  wealth,  such  as  poverty,  for  illustration,  it 
must  necessarily  go  to  economics  for  the  principles  under- 
lying and  the  laws  governing  the  distribution  of  wealth. 
'Again,  when  sociology  deals  with  phenomena  involving 
the  production  of  wealth,  sociology  must  go  to  economics 
for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  factors  involved.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  economics  deals  with  exchange  of 
wealth,  it  must  go  to  sociology  for  an  understanding  of 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  9 

the  human  interests  which  cause  people  to  desire  articles 
they  do  not  possess  and  to  be  willing  to  exchange  other 
things  for  them.  Economics  must  go  to  sociology  and 
also  to  psychology  for  a  knowledge  of  the  forces  which 
control  human  action.  Economics  cannot  explain  the 
desire  of  man  for  sociability,  his  craving  for  companion- 
ship, although  it  must  recognize  this  as  a  factor  in  the 
distribution  of  wealth.  Custom,  habit,  imitation,  and 
similar  factors  are  constantly;  making  themselves  felt  in 
the  economic  world,  and  economies  must  learn  of  sociology 
the  laws  or  principles  governing  these,  in  the  same  man- 
lier that  sociology  is  obliged  to  go  to  economics  for  much 
of  its  data.  Sociology  must  depend  upon  economics  in 
matters  involving  the  production,  distribution  and 
consumption  of  wealth;  economics  must  depend  upon 
sociology  in  matters  connected  with  human  association 
or  the  social  activities  of  man.  Each  is  indispensable  to 
the  other;  but  neither  can  be  said  to  be  a  part  of  the 
other,  although  overenthusiastic  students  of  both  sciences 
sometimes  make  such  assertions.  There  is  a  border- 
ground,  claimed  more  or  less  by  each,  involving  such 
problems  as  poverty,  labor,  and  the  movements  and  in- 
crease of  population,  where  it  is  hard  to  draw  the  line 
between  the  two. 

2.  Sociology  and  Political  Science. — Political  science,  or 
as  it  is  often  called,  the  science  of  government,  deals  with 
such  problems  as  the  origin,  nature,  forms,  and  functions 
of  the  state ;  the  location  of  sovereignty,  and  the  questions 
of  administration.  It  has  a  relation  to  sociology  very 
similar  to  that  of  economics  to  sociology.  The  state  is 
one  of  the  leading  institutions  of  society  and  as  such 
comes  in  for  treatment  under  sociology;  therefore  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  state  are  phenomena 
treated  by  both  sciences.  Here,  however,  political  science 
is  more  dependent  upon  sociology  than  the  reverse,  for 
political  science  has  to  come  to  sociology  for  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  social  control  and  for  an  understand- 
ing of  those  who  are  governed,  as  well  as  other  basic 
principles  which  must  be  considered  in  the  administration 


10  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

of  government.  Sociology  uses  the  facts  of  political 
science  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  some  of  its 
general  principles.  The  line  between  the  two  is  much 
clearer  than  between  sociology  and  economics,  and  be- 
cause of  this  there  is  less  friction  between  them. 

3.  Sociology  and  History. — History  is  a  more  or  less 
concrete  science,  and  therefore  is  much  more  definite  than 
sociology.     It  treats  of  the  past  actions  of  man — what 
man  has  done,  and  how  he  did  it.     Sociology  must  go 
to  history  constantly  for  material,  for  information,  for 
illustrations,  and  for  the  proof  of  its  principles,  as  well 
as  for  explanation  of  its  problems.     On  the  other  hand, 
history  has  to  depend  upon  sociology  for  an  explanation 
of  the  motives  prompting  man  to  act.     There  is  little 
conflict  between  sociology  and  objective  history,  although 
a  few  historians  would  include  all  sociology  in  history; 
but  when  it  comes  to  some  of  the  subdivisions  or  branches 
of  history,   like   historiography  and  the   philosophy  of 
history,  the  lines  of  distinction  fade.     Many  historians 
assert,  for  example,  that  sociology  is  little  better  than 
a  philosophy  of  history,  although  the  latter  has  never 
dealt  with  more  than  a  very  few  of  its  problems.    On  the 
whole,  the  distinction  here  is  much  better  drawn  than  it 
is  between  sociology  and  economics.     Each  is  dependent 
upon  the  other,  although  history  could  probably  get  along 
much  better  without  sociology  than  vice  versa.    History, 
at    any   rate,    did   exist   for   hundreds   of   years   before 
sociology  arose,  but  the  newer  study  has  vitalized  the  old 
by   adding  warmth   and   human   interest   to   what   was 
mainly  a   collection   of  facts.     In   short,   sociology   has 
socialized   history   and   has   broadened   it.     History   no 
longer  concerns  itself  only  with  battles,  the  doings  of 
rulers,  and  the  acts  of  the  nobility;  it  gives  attention 
now  to  the  life  of  the  common  people,  their  standards 
of  living,  ideals,  habits  and  customs,  as  well  as  to  the 
acts  of  their  rulers.     If  this  were  the  only  contribution 
sociology  had  made  to  science,  its  mission  would  be  amply 
justified. 

4.  Sociology  and  Anthropology. — Anthropology,  or  the 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  11 

study  of  man  considered  zoologically  or  ethnographically, 
generally  regarded  as  a  study  of  primitive  man,  stands 
in  much  the  same  relation  to  sociology  as  does  history. 
Sociology  uses  anthropology  as  a  source-book  of  facts 
concerning  primitive  man:  his  early  history  and  the 
origin  and  development  of  his  institutions,  such  as  the 
family,  the  state,  and  religion.  Anthropology,  like  his- 
tory, has  been  broadened  by  sociology,  being  changed 
from  a  mere  catalogue  of  collections  to  an  attempt  to 
trace  the  evolution  of  society  from  its  beginning  to  the 
present.  The  border  ground  between  these  two  sciences 
extends  along  so  much  of  the  field  of  anthropology  that 
it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  anthropology  ends  and 
sociology  begins,  but  sociology  deals  more  with  the 
present  or,  at  least,  historical  period. 

5.  Sociology  and  Ethics. — The  relationship  existing  be- 
tween sociology  and  ethics  is  not  so  easily  traced.    Ethics, 
the  science  of  morality,  deals  with  what  ought  to  be; 
it  is  idealistic,  although  it  has  to  take  cognizance  of  social 
facts ;  while  sociology  deals  with  what  has  been  and  with 
what    is.      For    such    information    ethics    relies    upon 
sociology,  although  ethics  does  not  attempt  to  manipulate 
these  facts  except  insofar  as  they  relate  to  what  ought 
to  be.     Ethics  deals  with  standards,  ideals,  and  norms.* 
Sociology,  while  it  leads  up  to  ideals,  does  not  discuss  j 
them;  it  merely  considers  things  as  they  are.     In  other  ' 
words,  sociology  leads  towards  ethics,  but  stops  before 
reaching  it.     Ethics,  being  a  science  of  value  and  ideals, 
invades  all  realms  of  activity  and  attempts  to  set  up 
standards   of   action.     It   is   dependent,   not   only  upon 
sociology,  but  likewise  upon  nearly  all  the  sciences,  al- 
though supported  more  directly  by  sociology  than  by  any 
other. 

6.  Sociology  and  the  Natural  Sciences. — For  the  sociolo- 
gist the  most  important  of  the  physical  sciences  is  biology. 
It  furnishes   sociology  with   the  facts  of  physical   life, 
particularly  with  regard  to  nerve  structure,  the  relation 
of    the    organism    to    its    environment,    and    so    forth. 
Sociology  must  derive  from  biology  a  knowledge  of  the 


12  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

processes  of  heredity  and  organic  development.  Indeed 
it  must  obtain  from  biology  all  the  facts  it  needs  respect- 
ing animal  life.  In  the  same  way,  sociology  must  go 
to  chemistry,  physics,  geology,  geography,  and  the  other 
natural  sciences  for  specific  information.  None  of  these 
has,  however,  much  need  for  such  a  vague  general  science 
as  sociology;  in  fact,  these  are  the  foundation  sciences, 
or  better  perhaps,  the  mechanical  sciences. 

7.  Sociology  and  Psychology. — Psychology,  like  econom- 
ics, is  a  near  neighbor  to  sociology.  Each  constantly 
invades  the  other's  territory,  for  the  boundaries  are  hard 
to  distinguish.  Psychology,  the  science  of  consciousness 
and  of  behavior,  deals  essentially  with  the  individual; 
while  sociology  deals  with  the  group;  this  is  the  chief 
distinction  between  them.  To  be  a  sociologist  one  must 
be  a  psychologist,  to  understand  society  one  must  know 
the  principles  of  psychology.  For  since  psychology  is  a 
study  of  the  individual  mind,  and  since  society  is  merely 
a  collection  of  individuals,  to  understand  the  social 
mind  one  must  necessarily  understand  the  individual 
mind.  Although  the  individual  will  often  act  and 
think  differently  when  in  a  group  than  when  alone, 
his  mental  processes  are  the  same.  And  many  of 
the  forces  that  control  human  action,  and  the  interests 
that  prompt  man  to  act,  can  be  explained  only  by 
psychology.  Many  people  look  upon  sociology  as  social 
psychology,  consisting  merely  of  a  psychical  analysis  of 
society.  While  social  psychology  is  a  very  important  part 
of  sociology,  especially  of  pure  or  theoretical  sociology, 
and,  in  reality,  affects  all  phases  of  the  science,  it  is  by 
no  means  the  whole  of  it.  Social  psychology  is  merely 
that  side  of  sociology  which  faces  psychology.  It  is  the 
border-land  between  the  two  sciences  and  is  of  course 
claimed  by  both.  Sociology  is  as  dependent  upon 
psychology  as  psychology  is  upon  biology;  it  needs 
psychology  as  much  as  it  needs  economics,  though  prob- 
ably no  more.  A  number  of  sociologists,  especially  Tarde 
and  Giddings,  have  taken  certain  psychological  principles 
and  have  built  whole  systems  of  sociology  upon  them. 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  13 

This  is,  of  course,  carrying  the  relationship  to  the  ex- 
treme ;  but  fully  to  interpret  society,  the  sociologist  must 
recognize  the  psychical  forces  at  work  and,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, explain  them. 

Other  sciences  might  be  mentioned  as  having  some 
bearing  upon  sociology,  but  the  above  are  the  most  closely; 
related;  and  of  these  the  most  important  are  economics, 
psychology,  history  and  biology. 

Several  of  the  sciences  touched  upon  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  form  what  is  generally  called  the  social 
science  group,  because  of  the  close  relation  each  science 
has  to  society  and  to  the  others  in  the  group.  But  as 
to  just  what  sciences  should  be  included  there  is  no 
consensus  of  opinion.  Everyone  recognizes  the  justifica- 
tion for  including  sociology,  economics,  political  science, 
and  anthropology;  and  nearly  everyone  includes  history. 
Some  add  ethics  and  religion,  and  a  few,  psychology. 
Such  a  classification  is  usually  made  from  a  pedagogical 
point  of  view,  because  it  helps  to  straighten  the  per- 
plexity liable  to  arise  in  the  mind  of  the  student.  Black- 
mar  and  Gillin1  give  perhaps  the  best  classification  of 
the  social  sciences,  with  the  principal  subheads  under 
each  class,  as  follows: 

I.    ETHICS. 

Principles  of  Ethics. 
History  of  Ethics. 
Social  Ethics. 

II.    ECONOMICS. 

Economic  Theory  and  Institutions. 

Economic  Politics. 

Industrial  History. 

Labor  Legislation. 

Banking  and  Monetary  Theory. 

Taxation  and  Finance. 

III.    POLITICS. 

Political  Theory. 

Diplomacy  and  International  Law. 

National  Administration. 

~0v,tlines  of  Sociology,  pp.  26-27. 


14  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

Municipal  Administration. 
Constitutional  Law. 
Colonial  Administration. 

IV.    HISTORY. 

Political  History. 
History  of  Institutions. 
Social  History. 
Historical  Geography. 

V.    SOCIOLOGY. 

Descriptive  Sociology. 

Social  Origins. 

Social  Evolution. 

Social  Pathology. 

Socialization  and  Social  Control. 

Social  Psychology. 

History  of  Sociology. 

VI.    ANTHROPOLOGY. 

General  Anthropology. 

Ethnology. 

Ethnography. 

Somatology. 

Archeology. 

VII.    COMPARATIVE  RELIGION. 

Additions  might  be  made  to  this  list ;  it  is  by  no  means 
offered  as  the  only  method  of  arrangement,  but  as  per- 
haps the  best  one  suggested  so  far.  At  any  rate  it  serves 
our  purpose  by  helping  to  show  the  relationship  existing 
between  the  sciences  commonly  called  social. 

Sociology  a  General  Science. — Sociology  has  often  been 
criticized  for  being  too  general,  too  loosely  put  together; 
it  has  been  attacked  because  it  does  not  draw  hard  and 
fast  lines,  because  it  cannot  say  that  such  and  such  will 
happen.  In  chemistry  whenever  two  or  more  elements 
are  put  together  in  the  given  proportions,  the  result  will 
always  be  the  same  if  the  conditions  are  uniform.  Like- 
wise in  physics — the  laws  of  the  lever,  of  gravity,  etc., 
always  act  uniformly  when  conditions  are  the  same.  In 
mathematics  exact  results  are  obtained;  in  fact,  mathe- 
matical results  are  the  best  illustration  of  scientific  ac- 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  15 

curacy.  Chemistry,  physics  and  mathematics  are  exact 
sciences,  where  definite  laws  can  be  formulated.  Sociology 
does  not  exhibit  such  undeviating  precision.  For  two 
persons  with  exactly  the  same  environment  may  turn 
out  opposite  in  character;  the  one  may  become  an  al- 
truistic social  worker,  and  the  other  a  dangerous  criminal ; 
or  the  one  may  become  a  spendthrift,  the  other  a  million- 
aire. The  factors  are  too  many  and  varied  to  permit 
the  formulation  of  definite  laws.  No  two  persons  are 
alike ;  hence  they  will  never  act  similarly  under  the  same 
stimulus — if  such  can  be  obtained. 

Because  sociology  cannot  lay  down  exact  and  compre- 
hensive laws,  many  persons  go  so  far  as  to  deny  to  it 
the  honor  of  being  called  a  science.  Such  criticisms  are 
becoming  fewer  as  people  become  more  familiar  with  it. 
It  is  being  recognized  that  each  science  has  its  own 
method  and  peculiarities.  It  would  be  as  fair  and  valid 
to  criticize  biology  because  it  rearranges  its  theories  every 
now  and  then;  or  to  condemn  mathematics  because  it  is 
not  an  end  in  itself,  but  merely  a  means  by  which  other 
sciences  reach  their  objectives;  or  to  berate  economics 
because  the  economists  cannot  agree  among  themselves 
as  to  what  interest,  rent,  and  labor  really  are;  as  it  is 
to  criticize  sociology  because  it  cannot  lay  down  any 
definite,  hard-and-fast  laws.  Sociology  has  its  laws,  but 
they  are  not  iron-clad;  they  are  rather  statements  of 
tendencies  or  generalizations.  In  short,  they  are  broad 
summaries  of  general  conditions,  which  will  be  likely 
to  hold  good  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

The  same  is  true  in  tracing  periods  in  social  history; 
seldom  can  definite  dates  be  given,  at  least  for  humanity 
in  general.  Different  races  or  peoples  may  adopt  the 
same  invention,  but  at  vastly  different  dates.  They  may 
pass  through  like  stages  of  culture,  but  at  widely  varying 
periods  of  time.  One  race  or  nation  may  progress  rapidly, 
while  another  not  far  distant  may  progress  much  more 
slowly.  The  contributing  factors  are  too  many  and  varied 
to  be  all  taken  into  consideration.  In  fact,  only  a  few 
of  the  most  evident  factors  arc  ever  known.  If  we  could 


16  The  Nature  of  Sociology 

perceive  all  the  forces  at  work  and  recognize  all  the 
determining  conditions,  then  we  might  be  able  to  predict 
as  accurately  what  would  happen,  as  does  the  chemist 
when  he  combines  various  elements. 

Therefore,  in  our  study  of  sociology  we  shall  not  meet 
concisely  phrased  universal  laws,  like  those  with  which 
we  are  familiar  in  mathematics  and  physics ;  nevertheless 
we  must  not  ignore  social  laws,  for  they  are  equal  in 
importance  to  the  laws  derived  in  the  exact  sciences. 

Sociology  deals  with  phenomena,  the  principles  and 
facts  of  human  association.  In  discussing  these,  we  must 
notice  the  origin  and  development  of  society,  the  interests 
prompting  human  action  and  the  forces  controlling  man, 
and  the  present  organization  of  society,  as  well  as  the 
problems  confronting  society.  In  following  this  general 
plan  we  shall  first  study  population — the  effect  of  nature 
upon  population,  human  migration  and  the  mixture  of 
races;  this  will  lead  us  to  our  present-day  problems  of 
immigration  and  racial  differences.  Second,  we  shall  trace 
the  evolution  of  society,  giving  special  attention  to  the 
family,  the  state  and  religion.  Third,  we  shall  analyze 
the  organization  of  present-day  society,  first  in  its  normal 
or  healthy  aspect,  then  in  its  abnormal  or  pathological 
aspect.  And  finally  we  may  take  a  glimpse  into  the  future 
in  an  attempt  to  forecast  future  social  progress. 


READING  REFERENCES 

ELLWOOD,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Chaps. 

I  and  III. 
ELLWOOD,  C.  .A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chaps. 

I  to  VI,  inc. 

BLACKMAR,  F.  W.  AND  GILLIN,  J.  L.,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  I. 
HAYES,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Chaps.  I 

and  II. 

WRIGHT,  C.  D.,  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology,  Chap.  I. 
WARD,  L.  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chap.  III. 
GIDDINGS,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Chap.  II. 
DEALEY,  J.  Q.  AND  WARD,  L.  F.,  Text-Book  of  Sociology,  Chaps, 

I,  II  and  III, 


The  Nature  of  Sociology  ,        17 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Chaps.  I,  II,  III  and  IV. 

FAIRBANKS,  ARTHTIB,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  pp.  1-68. 

WARD,  L.  F.,  Outlines  of  Sociology. 

SMALL,  A.  W.,  General  Sociology,  Part  I. 

PARMELEE,  MAURICE,  Science  of  Human  Behavior.    For  biological 

and  psychological  foundations  of  sociology. 
DEALEY,   J.    Q.,  Sociology:   its   Development  and  Application, 

Part  I. 
TARDE,  GABRIEL,  Laws  of  Imitation. 


PART  Two 
CHAPTER  II 

MAN  AND  NATURE;  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHIC 
ENVIRONMENT  UPON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SO- 
CIETY 

The  influence  of  geographic  environment  upon  society 
is  one  which  many  writers  ignore  entirely,  and  one  which 
a  few,  especially  Buckle  and  Miss  Semple,  emphasize  far 
more  than  there  is  any  warrant  for.  In  this  chapter  that 
influence  will  be  considered  as  one  of  the  molders  of 
civilization,  but  not  as  the  chief  factor. 

Influence  Upon  Population. — Man,  like  all  other  species 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  is  dependent  on  his  environment 
for  his  existence.  This  dependence  was  much  more  im- 
mediate with  primitive  than  it  is  with  civilized  man,  for 
primitive  man  lived  by  the  direct  appropriation  of  the 
gifts  of  nature.  He  subsisted  upon  berries,  fruits,  nuts, 
shellfish,  and,  in  fact,  anything  edible  on  which  he  could 
lay  his  hands.  Since  his  very  existence  was  thus  de- 
pendent upon  his  environment,  he  had  to  live  in  those 
localities  where  food  could  be  obtained.  Later  when  he 
added  fish  to  his  bill  of  fare  he  was  drawn  toward  the 
streams  and  the  seashore,  in  order  to  get  this  more  staple 
form  of  food;  when  he  began  to  hunt  he  moved  to  the 
regions  where  game  could  be  found.  Still  later  when 
he  began  to  domesticate  animals  he  sought  the  grassy 
regions  where  his  cattle  could  feed.  And  when  agricul- 
ture was  also  added  as  a  means  of  providing  food  the 
bond  between  him  and  the  environment  was  still  closer, 
because  the  cultivation  of  the  crops  could  be  successfully 
pursued  only  where  the  soil  was  of  sufficient  richness, 
where  there  was  a  sufficient  amount  of  rainfall,  and  where 

18 


Man  and  Nature  19 

the  climate  provided  the  right  temperature.1  The  adop- 
tion of  each  new  method  of  getting  food  did  not  make 
man  less  dependent  upon  nature ;  it  simply  made  him  less 
dependent  upon  one  particular  condition  of  nature.  If 
one  means  of  subsistence  failed  he  had  the  others  to  fall 
back  upon. 

Climate  determines  to  a  great  extent  the  amount  and 
kind  of  food  that  man  needs.  The  objects  of  food  are 
to  give  warmth  to  the  body  and  repair  tissues  worn  out 
by  bodily  activity.  If  man  lives  in  a  cold  region  he  not 
only  must  have  more  food  but  it  must  be  of  a  different 
kind;  it  must  supply  greater  heat,  and  hence  must  be 
made  up  more  of  fats.  Also  in  a  cold  climate  greater 
exertion  is  necessary  to  provide  a  living ;  hence  the  amount 
of  actual  energy  expended  by  the  body  is  greater  and 
more  food  is  required.  In  a  warm  region  less  exertion 
is  necessary — in  fact,  little  is  desired;  so  there  is  less 
energy  expended  and  less  need  of  fats;  fruits  are  pre- 
ferred for  food.  Moreover  in  the  warm  climates  food 
is  abundant;  because  slight  exertion  is  necessary  little 
ingenuity  is  required;  hence,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the 
warm  regions  never  produce  the  sturdy,  ingenious  races  of 
people  that  the  colder  regions  develop. 

This  is  one  reason  why  practically  all  conquering  races 
come  from  the  north,  and  why  a  great  continent  like 
Africa  and  an  immense  territory  like  India  are  easily 
conquered  by  small  European  nations.  Indeed  all  through 
the  past  it  has  been  from  the  north  that  the  conquering 
races  have  come.  The  very  fact  that  these  peoples  had 
to  work  indefatigably  to  make  a  living  made  them  ener- 
getic and  resourceful;  their  constant,  keen  battle  with 
nature  and  their  struggles  to  withstand  hardships  made 
them  brave  and  fearless.  On  the  other  hand,  those  peoples 
living  in  a  warm  region  where  food  was  abundant  did 
not  have  to  worry  about  the  future;  they  were  able  to 
support  themselves  with  little  work;  they  became  there- 
fore indolent,  unresourceful  and  timid. 

JIt  is  not  implied  that  this  is  the  logical  or  the  typical  order  of 
industrial  development;  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose  of  illustration. 


20  Man  and  Nature 

Before  trade  and  commerce  were  developed  enough  to 
bring  food  from  other  places,  the  amount  of  food  pro- 
duced by  any  region  determined  the  number  of  people 
who  could  live  there.  This  explains  why  we  find  civiliza- 
tion first  developing  in  the  rich  river  valleys  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  and  the  Nile.  These  regions  were  able  to 
support  a  large  population,  many  people  came  into  con- 
tact with  each  other,  exchanged  ideas,  and  so  progressed 
more  rapidly  than  in  other  regions  where  only  a  few  could 
live.  Land  used  for  grazing  will  not  support  a  large 
population  but  it  will  support  more  than  if  it  were  used 
for  hunting,  for  domestic  animals  can  be  raised  on  a 
smaller  space  than  that  required  by  wild  animals  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  supply  food.  Fishing  will  support 
a  larger  population  than  hunting  or  grazing,  if  the  fish 
are  abundant,  as  in  a  large  lake,  river,  or  sea.  Agricul- 
ture will  provide  for  still  more ;  but  even  here  the  kinds 
of  plants  cultivated  have  to  be  considered.  Potatoes,  for 
example,  require  much  less  space  than  corn  or  wheat ; 
bananas  require  even  less  than  potatoes.  Where  popula- 
tion increases,  mo.re  intensive  methods  of  cultivation  are 
used,  the  plants  being  grown  which  require  little  space. 
Thus  the  population  which  a  region  can  support  depends 
upon  its  soil,  its  rainfall,  and  its  temperature,  unless  a 
deficiency  is  made  up  in  'some  other  way.  In  modern 
times  trade,  commerce  and  manufacturing  have  been  de- 
veloped as  substitutes  for  the  basic  occupations,  enabling 
the  people  to  produce  other  commodities  to  exchange  for 
food.  If  Great  Britain  and  the  New  England  states  were 
not  able  to  manufacture  goods  to  exchange  for  other 
necessities  they  would  not  be  able  to  support  their  present 
dense  populations. 

Effect  on  the  Life  of  the  People. — Geographical  con- 
ditions not  only  affect  the  food  supply  but  also  influence 
almost  every  phase  of  the  life  of  the  people.  The  climate 
determines  whether  much  or  little  clothing  is  required. 
In  the  case  of  animals  nature  regulates  this  herself,  sup- 
plying a  coat  of  fur  or  hair  to  offset  a  falling  in  the 
temperature.  Man  is  not  thus  looked  after,  but  is  required 


Man  and  Nature  21 

to  provide  for  himself.  However,  in  cold  regions  furs 
and  feathers  can  be  obtained,  while  in  the  warm  regions 
reeds,  grasses,  fibers  and  barks  can  be  used,  man  nearly 
always  finding  at  hand  the  materials  necessary  to  provide 
suitable  clothing.  This  matter  is  not  so  important  as 
one  would  perhaps  think,  for,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the 
wearing  of  .clothing  has  been  developed  for  the  sake  of 
ornament  rather  than  for  protection  to  the  body.  The 
case  of  shelter  is  much  the  same ;  in  warm  countries  little 
is  needed;  in  colder  regions  more  must  be  provided. 
Probably  the  most  important  effect  is,  that  the  struggle 
for  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  in  the  colder  regions  de- 
velops energy  and  resourcefulness — characteristics  which 
are  not  so  well  developed  in  the  warmer  zones. 

Effect  Upon  Economic  Development. — The  country  in 
which  people  live  also  determines  their  occupation.  If 
there  is  an  abundance  of  game,  man  will  hunt;  if  the 
streams  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  he  will  fish.  If  the 
country  is  suitable  for  grazing,  he  will  domesticate 
animals  and  become  pastoral.  If  the  soil  is  productive, 
he  will  become  an  agriculturalist.  If  he  lives  on  the 
coast,  where  he  can  get  materials  for  ships,  and  is  not 
too  strongly  tempted  by  the  productiveness  of  the  land, 
he  will  become  a  sailor.  If  a  group  of  people  is  located 
between  peoples  who  are  engaged  in  different  occupations, 
as  agricultural  tribes  on  one  side  and  pastoral  on  the 
other,  it  is  likely  to  become  a  commercial  race,  exchang- 
ing the  commodities  of  its  neighbors.  The  development 
of  various  industries  among  nations  of  the  world  has 
been  largely  owing  to  the  geographical  conditions  which 
surround  those  countries.  /  England  has  become  an  indus- 
trial nation  because  of  her  poor  soil,  abundance  of  fuel, 
and  dense  population.  Because  of  exactly  opposite  con- 
ditions Denmark  has  become  a  highly  developed  agricul- 
tural nation.  China  became  largely  agricultural  because 
of  her  rich  river  valleys.  The  Phoenicians,  the  Cartha- 
ginians, the  Venetians,  the  Dutch,  and  later  the  English 
and  the  Germans  took  up  commerce  because  of  situations 
favorable  to  it,  coupled  with  other  inducements,  such  as 


22  Man  and  Nature 

excess  populations,  and  insufficient  natural  resources.  The 
American  Indians  remained  primarily  hunters  because 
of  an  abundance  of  game  and  the  scarcity;  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

In  fact,  the  economic  life  of  every  nation  has  been 
molded,  to  a  great  extent,  by  geographic  conditions.  For 
not  only  has  the  occupation  chosen  by  man — or  perhaps 
we  ought  to  say,  the  occupation  forced  upon  him — been 
largely  the  result  of  environment,  but  also  the  success 
with  which  he  has  followed  it  is  ascribable  to  natural 
conditions.  If  man  were  not  able  to  produce  more  than 
he  consumes,  there  would  be  nothing  left  over  to  serve 
as  capital ;  hence  there  would  be  no  industry,  little  leisure 
time,  no  education,  and  slight  progress  in  civilization. 
Tibet,  the  Arctic  regions,  and  the  Caucasus  are  good 
examples  of  this  state  of  affairs;  furthermore  they  are 
so  situated  that  they  could  not  develop  commerce  or 
industry.  If  we  examine  the  different  sections  of  the 
United  States,  we  can  find  many  illustrations  of  the  in- 
fluence of  natural  conditions.  The  great  fertile  regions 
of  the  Central  States  and  the  rich  sections  scattered  over 
the  country,  such  as  the  Mississippi  valley  and  those 
found  in  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington,  are  given 
over  to  agriculture;  the  hilly  districts  of  New  England 
are  devoted  to  manufacturing  and  small  gardening;  that 
portion  lying  just  west  of  the  farming  section,  Being  too 
poor  for  the  best  farming,  is  taken  up  with  cattle  and 
sheep  ranches.  Each  locality  tries  to  do  that  for  which 
it  is  best  adapted.  In  recent  years  this  has  come  to 
be  adopted  more  and  more  as  the  policy  of  nations,  that 
each  country  should  try  to  produce  those  things  for  which 
it  is  best  fitted,  and  not  everything  that  it  consumes. 

Effect  Upon  Human  Institutions. — In  the  case  of  gov- 
ernment we  notice  that  the  type  developed  is  largely  the 
result  of  geographic  environment.  The  development  of 
democracy  in  the  city-states  of  Greece  was  made  possible 
by  the  mountain  ranges  which  cut  the  country  up  into 
small  sections.  When  the  region  is  vast  and  yet  remains 
isolated  from  other  countries,  conditions  are  much  more 


Man  and  Nature  23 

favorable  to  the  establishment  of  empires  and  unlimited 
monarchies,  like  those  developed  in  Assyria,  Persia,  Rus- 
sia and  China.  In  countries  where  the  people  come  into 
contact  with  those  of  other  nations  and  have  more  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  and  think,  we  find  the  common  people 
having  a  voice  in  the  government,  and  the  development 
of  constitutional  monarchies,  free  cities,  and  republics. 

In  regions  made  difficult  to  control  because  of  their 
isolation  we  find  lawlessness,  brigandage,  and  absence  of 
regular  government ;  such  have  been  the  Caucasus,  Afghan- 
istan and  Tibet,  and  such  was,  at  the  time  of  the  arrival 
of  the  English,  Northern  India.  Swamps,  islands  and 
mountains  furnish  refuges  for  pirates,  brigands  and  other 
outlaws.  The  number  of  such  places  in  the  UniteS  States 
made  law  enforcement  a  great  problem  in  the  early  days 
of  the  West.  The  Highlanders  of  Scotland  were  known 
as  a  lawless  people  even  after  Scotland  as  a  whole  became 
a  very  highly  developed  country.  The  Kurds  and  Tartars 
have  always  been  thorns  in  the  flesh  of  their  neighbors; 
punishment  of  their  outrages  has  been  hindered  by  the 
geography  of  their  countries.  It  has  often  been  used 
in  this  country,  as  an  argument  against  prohibition,  that 
in  such  sections  as  the  mountain  districts  of  Kentucky 
the  law  could  not  be  enforced.  So,  while  other  factors 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  the  geographical  fea- 
tures of  the  country,  do  undoubtedly  have  a  great  in- 
fluence on  the  development  of  government  and  the 
enforcement  of  law. 

Policies  of  nations,  such  as  colonial  policy,  for  instance, 
are  often  dictated  or  at  least  influenced  by  geographic 
environment ;  that  is,  they  are  suggested  or  forced  upon 
the  country  because  of  its  location  and  expanding  popu- 
lation. Policies  of  free  trade  or  protection  are  determined 
by  location  and  occupation.  England  favors  free  trade 
because  she  cannot  produce  raw  materials  and  must  im- 
port them  along  with  her  food  supply;  if  she  can  get 
other  countries  to  admit  her  manufactured  products  she 
gains  thus  much.  The  United  States  formerly  was  in 
the  opposite  situation  and  therefore  held  to  the  policy 


24  Man  and  Nature 

of  protection;   our   increasing   population   is    gradually 
changing  our  interests,  and  consequently  our  tariff  policy. 

When  we  study j?eligion,  we  observe  a  psychical  effect  of 
environment  upoiTman/TSot  only  the  effect  of  the  atmos- 
phere, the  appearance  of  the  sky,  and  the  breadth  of 
landscape,  but  also  his  occupation,  which,  as  we  have 
already  noticed,  is  itself  largely  determined  by  geographic 
factors.  We.  find  that  the  great  religions  of  the  world 
have  been  given  us  by  shepherd  peoples,  who  have  had 
opportunity  to  ponder  over  the  mysteries  of  life;  their 
beliefs  were  affected  by  direct  contact  with  nature  ofl" 
the  plains,  where  they  could  not  help  being  impressed 
by  the  clear  sky,  the  breadth  of  the  view,  and,  as  they 
led  their  flocks  into  the  mountains  in  summer,  by  the 
grandeur  of  the  scenery.  On  the  contrary,  we  find,  as 
a  result  of  the  complexity  of  life  and  the  dangers  from 
beasts  and  reptiles,  the  religions  of  peoples  living  in  the 
tropics  permeated  with  magic  and  superstition.  ThSse 
tropical  inhabitants  could  not  explain  nature,  hence  they 
believed  that  its  workings  were  caused  by  spirits,  which 
could  be  appeased  only  by  magic. 

Many  social  institutions,  like  slavery,  have  been  fostered 
or  prevented  by  the  nature  of  the  country.  Slavery  is 
generally  confined  to  warm  regions,  wrhere  labor  is  irk- 
some and  food  abundant,  where  the  work  of  one  man  can 
support  two,  and  where  the  slave  can  be  fed  and  clothed 
at  little  expense.  In  the  United  States  slavery  died  cut- 
in  the  North  because  it  was  unprofitable;  it  flourished 
in  the  South  because  the  slave  could  be  worked  to  ad- 
vantage on  the  large  plantations.  In  the  hilly  regions 
of  the  South,  particularly  eastern  Kentucky,  eastern  Ten- 
nessee, western  Virginia,  the  western  part  of  the  Caro- 
linas,  and  northern  Georgia,  slavery  never  did  prosper 
and  much  of  this  territory  favored  the  North  in  the  Civil 
War.  Likewise  in  Africa  and  Asia,  slavery  has  flourished 
in  those  regions  where  the  climate  makes  labor  objection- 
able and  where  slave  labor  can  be  profitably  employed. 
It  is  a  fact  that  literature  and  education  develop  more 
in  the  northern  or  temperate  climates ;  there  are  also  more 


Man  and  Nature  25 

'democracy  and  equality  in  these  regions,  especially  in 
those  countries  which  are  so  situated  as  to  allow  the 
inhabitants  to  come  into  contact  with  others. 

Influence  Upon  the  Family. — The  position  of  woman  in  / 
the  family  is  governed  largely  by  her  importance  as  a  \j 
provider.  If  her  work  is  more  important  than  that  of 
her  husband  she  either  rules  the  family  or  has  a  great 
deal  to  say  about  the  management  of  the  home.  When 
her  work  is  a  minor  element  she  is  relegated  to  the  back- 
ground. This  is  noticed  in  pastoral  peoples,  where  she 
cannot  tend  the  herds  and  as  a  result  sinks  into  the 
position  of  a  chattel.  The  same  is  true  of  hunting  races, 
only  here  she  is  compelled  to  do  the  "dirty  work"  about 
the  camp  and  become  a  drudge.  Where  life  is  cheap  or 
living  is  hard  we  find  infanticide  practiced.  In  most  of 
Africa  woman  occupies  a  place  little  better  than  that  of 
a  slave,  while  in  the  temperate  zones  she  occupies  a  posi- 
tion more  nearly  equal  to  that  of  man. 

Influence  Upon  the  Character  of  the  People. — The  char- 
acter of  the  people  is  influenced  largely  by  geographic 
environment.  As  we  have  noticed,  the  colder  climates 
produce  the  warrior  class,  since  people  from  the  colder 
countries  have  greater  energy,  courage,  and  ingenuity, 
while  those  in  the  warmer  countries  are  more  inclined  to 
be  indolent  and  improvident.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
warmer  regions,  as  a  rule,  are  more  artistic,  imaginative, 
and  idealistic,  their  imagination  being  stimulated  by  their 
environment.  They  are  also  more  hot-headed  and  im- 
pulsive, and  have  a  lower  estimate  of  the  value  of  human 
life;  life  is  easier  with  them,  of  less  consequence;  hence 
they  are  more  apt  to  take  life.  Because  of  the  greater 
exertion  required,  the  northern  peoples  are  as  a  rule 
hardier  and  more  muscular,  unless  the  climate  is  so  severe 
as  to  stunt  through  failure  to  provide  sufficient  nourish- 
ment. On  the  whole,  the  tropics  have  a  deadening  effect, 
while  the  colder  regions  have  a  stimulating  effect. 

Influence  Upon  Human  Migration. — We  find  that  the 
movements  of  man  have  been  governed  by  the  geography 
of  his  country.  If  hemmed  in  by  mountains,  he  was 


26  Man  and  Nature 

prevented  from  migration ;  if  he  lived  on  a  plain,  he  could 
not  keep  from  wandering.  In  his  movements  man  has 
followed  the  tracks  of  least  resistance,  following  river 
valleys  instead  of  climbing  mountains,  going  around  seas 
instead  of  crossing  them.  In  short  he  has  gone  where 
nature  has  allowed  him  to  go.  Deserts,  swamps,  moun- 
tains, oceans,  seas,  and  even  rivers  have  held  him  back, 
while  the  plain,  the  river  valley,  and  the  coast  line  have 
tempted  him  to  roam  into  new  fields.  America  was  not 
settled  until  very  late  in  the  history  of  man,  because  he 
could  not  get  here.  Europe,  on  the  contrary,  being  easily 
entered  was  settled  early.  Products  of  countries  have 
lured  man  on.  The  fur  trade  in  Siberia,  Alaska,  and 
northern  Canada  was  a  great  element  in  the  settling  of 
these  countries.  Ivory  and  rubber  have  drawn  the 
European  into  Africa  and  South  America,  while  gold  and 
silver  have  lured  him  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  world, 
as  the  Klondike,  northern  Siberia,  South  Africa,  Australia 
and  Peru. 

Effect  on  Recreation. — Even  games  and  sports  have 
been  determined  by  the  geographical  location.  In  the 
colder  regions  strenuous  sports  are  indulged  in,  from  the 
necessity  to  keep  warm.  The  favorite  games  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  are  football,  baseball,  tennis,  running,  jump- 
ing, and  similar  games  demanding  muscular  energy.  Still 
farther  north  we  find  skiing,  snow-shoeing  and  skating — 
sports  utterly  impossible  in  warm  regions.  In  the  tropics, 
exercise  is  not  only  not  demanded  but  is  irksome;  hence 
recreation  takes  the  form  of  inactivity,  resting  and  avoid- 
ance of  effort.  We  find  Hindus  and  Chinese  looking 
down  upon  Europeans  because  they  indulge  in  violent 
sports,  asking  if  it  were  not  possible  to  hire  coolies  to 
play  tennis  or  football  and  thus  avoid  the  strenuous  exer- 
cise; for  them  recreation  is  to  sit  still  and  do  nothing. 
It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  as  a  result  of  contact  with  Europeans  and 
Americans  are  rapidly  adopting  Occidental  sports,  es- 
pecially tennis,  baseball  and  track  athletics. 

Influence  on  Social  Progress. — Whether  a  race  or  nation 
has  advanced  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  or  has  remained 


Man  and  Nature  27 

a  backward  people  is  largely  a  question  of  location. 
The  peoples  who  have  had  favorable  locations — in  the 
temperate  zone,  on  land  which  is  productive  and  hence 
in  demand,  or  on  the  coast  where  they  can  come  into 
contact  with  others  through  trade  or  commerce — advance 
much  more  rapidly  than  those  who  are  prevented  by  an 
unfavorable  location  from  coming  into  contact  with 
others.  Also  the  fact  that  people  in  the  temperate  zone 
have  a  distinct  advantage  over  those  in  the  tropics  where 
nature  is  too  generous  and  where  vitality  is  sapped,  has 
its  bearing  on  social  progress.  The  size  and  strength  of 
a  nation  may  be  limited  by  its  boundaries ;  the  mountains, 
seas,  deserts,  and  swamps  may  keep  it  from  expanding, 
and  from  advancing  in  civilization.  Our  backward  peo- 
ples live  in  the  inaccessible  regions  of  the  world,  e.g., 
Tibet,  Afghanistan,  the  jungles  of  Africa,  or  the  out-of- 
the-way  spots  of  the  earth,  like  Australia,  Madagascar 
and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Whether  a  country  is  located  in 
the  interior  or  on  the  coast  has  much  to  do  with  its 
development,  the  interior  location  allowing  expansion; 
it  also  offers  opportunity  for  conquest,  although  it  does 
not  allow  as  great  intercourse  with  other  peoples  as  a 
coast  location.  On  the  whole  we  find  that  the  country 
which  combines  a  large  interior  with  a  favorable  coast 
region  has  a  distinct  advantage  over  the  country  that 
has  only  one  of  those  features.  The  United  States  is  very 
fortunate  in  having  both.  The  nation  that  has  but  one 
strives  for  the  other ;  Russia  has  striven  for  centuries  for 
favorable  outlets  to  the  sea.  The  United  States,  in  the 
early  days  of  its  history,  had  the  coast,  but  was  not 
content  till  it  added  an  extensive  interior.  The  pre- 
ponderating influence  of  many  small  countries,  like 
Phoenicia,  Greece,  England,  and  Holland,  has  largely  been 
made  possible  by  their  position. 

Location  between  two  important  countries  allows  the 
acquisition  of  the  culture  and  civilization  of  both,  but  it 
offers  the  danger  of  being-  overrun  by  either.  Yet,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  find  that  the  struggle  for  existence 
becomes  a  struggle  for  space,  and  that  the  superior  races 
take  possession  of  the  best  land,  crowd  the  inferior  races 


28  Man  and  Nature 

into  the  undesirable  locations,  invade  the  domain  of 
weaker  peoples,  and  take  it  away  from  them;  so  we  see 
that  location  is  not  everything.  Yet  in  general,  a  favorable 
location  is  a  great  factor  towards  progress,  while  an 
unfavorable  one  is  a  handicap  and  check.  This  is  one 
of  the  chief  reasons  why  certain  races  have  advanced 
and  others  have  not  done  so.  In  order  to  study  this 
still  better  let  us  consider  in  more  detail  the  influences 
of  the  different  geographical  factors,  such  as  water,  moun- 
tains, plains,  and  climate,  upon  man's  development. 
•  Influence  of  Water  Upon  Man. — Man  has  always  been 
essentially  a  land  animal  and  has  gone  on  the  water  onljj 
in  quest  of  food  and  economic  gain.  While  he  has  often 
settled  near  the  sea  or  a  river  it  has  been  because  of 
the  nearness  to  a  supply  of  food  and  because  of  protec- 
tion, the  sea  insuring  him  against  surprise  in  that  quarter, 
and  the  river  at  least  causing  the  enemy  delay  before 
crossing,  thus  giving  him  time  to  defend  himself.  Man 
has  even  gone  out  into  the  water  to  build  his  home  upon 
islands,  or  even  on  piles,  so  as  to  obtain  a  greater  sense 
of  security.  Such  houses  have  been  found  among  the 
Malays  and  in  the  Swiss  lakes;  and  history  tells  us  that 
they  were  once  resorted  to  near  Thebes,  affording  the 
Greeks  a  refuge  against  the  invading  Persians.  The  sea 
has  furnished  man  with  an  important  addition  to  his 
food,  thus  permitting  him  to  live  in  places  otherwise  unin- 
habitable, and  has  enabled  him  to  go  farther  north  than 
he  could  have  done  without  its  help.  Barren  regions  are 
thereby  made  to  support  a  denser  population  than  they 
otherwise  could,  as  in  the  case  of  Newfoundland,  Norway, 
Alaska,  and  Japan.  In  fact,  fisheries  have  been  a  great 
factor  in  maritime  expansion,  helping  to  people  such  re- 
gions as  Alaska  and  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United 
States.  They  have  acted  also  as  nurseries  of  seamen, 
leading  to  the  commercial  activities  of  New  England  in 
former  days,  of  the  Dutch,  and  of  the  Scandinavians. 

The  control  over  water  has  been  a  great  factor  in 
civilization,  and  has  been  a  cause  of  wars  between  nations 
throughout  history.  Such  was  the  contest  between  the 
Greeks  and  the  Phoenicians  over  the  control  of  the  Aegean 


Man  and  Nature  29 

Sea;  of  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Romans  over  the 
Mediterranean;  of  France  and  England  over  certain 
fisheries,  and  of  the  United  States  with  France  and  Eng- 
land over  fishing  rights.  Control  over  inland  seas,  lakes, 
and  harbors  is  of  vast  importance.  Coasts  are  outlets  to 
commerce  and  expansion,  and  inlets  to  inventions,  im- 
provements and  new  ideas;  because  of  this  harbors  are 
highly  prized. 

The  control  over  rivers  is  of  equal  importance,  for 
rivers  are  highways  of  expansion  and  act  as  intermediaries 
between  land  and  sea.  A  country  with  navigable  rivers, 
has  an  immense  advantage  over  one  without  them.  The 
Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  Missouri  rivers  have  been  of  in- 
estimable value  to  this  country,  especially  during  its  early 
development.  Russia  is  handicapped  by  the  fact  that 
many  of  her  rivers  empty  into  the  polar  regions  and  that 
she  has  been  unable  to  get  a  really  serviceable  seaport. 
Germany,  like  the  United  States,  has  a  decided  advantage 
in  this  respect.  The  control  over  the  mouth  of  a  river 
is  of  great  strategic  importance,  since  traffic  becomes 
more  important  the  nearer  it  gets  to  the  mouth,  including 
both  exports  and  imports.  River  traffic  was  formerly  of 
more  importance  than  it  is  now  since  the  introduction  of 
the  railroad.  The  United  States  was  forced  to  gain  con- 
trol of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  for  the  sake  of  na- 
tional and  economic  development.  The  Mediterranean 
Sea  has  presented  but  limited  advantages  through  not 
having  many  large  rivers  flowing  into  it.  This  prevented 
an  early  development  of  commerce  and  civilization  for 
more  than  a  few  miles  from  the  coast.  The  Baltic  coun- 
tries, on  the  contrary,  have  been  more  favored. 

Coastal  peoples,  if  their  coast  is  accessible,  always  have 
an  advantage  over  interior  peoples  because  the  coast  acts 
as  a  zone  of  transition,  a  meeting  place  for  different  cul- 
tures an<J  civilizations.  It  is  a  place  where  peoples  from 
other  countries  may  land,  bringing  their  ideas,  habits,  cus- 
toms, and  inventions.  __It_acts  as  a  gateway — an  outlet 
for  colonization  and  exportation,  and  an  inlet  for  immi- 
gration and  importation. 

Colonies  are  always,  or  nearly  always,  planted  near  the 


30  M an  and  Nature 

shore;  islands  and  peninsulas  are  first  settled  because 
they  first  come  into  the  view  of  the  explorers;  and  they 
also  offer  means  of  communication  and  an  easy  retreat 
in  case  of  need  to  the  home  country.  Later,  colonization 
spreads  inland  and  occupies  larger  territory.  In  the  same 
way  that  peninsulas  stretch  out  into  the  sea,  and  attract 
commerce,  rivers,  bays,  and  harbors  reach  inland  and 
carry  the  contact  of  the  sea  with  them,  bringing  com- 
merce and  rapid  development. 

If  the  coast  is  cut  off  from  the  interior  by  mountains, 
or  has  no  suitable  harbors,  as  is  the  case  with  much  of 
Africa,  or  is  marshy,  as  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  com- 
merce will  not  come.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
harbors,  easy  access  to  the  interior,  and  articles  of  com- 
merce near  at  hand,  as  in  New  England,  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Holland,  and  France,  we  find  commerce  de, 
veloping  rapidly.  If,  however,  the  interior  is  very  rich — 
much  richer  than  the  coast — the  coast  will  not  tempt  and 
the  sea  will  not  be  a  great  influence,  such  being  the  case 
with  much  of  Africa. 

Because  of  these  advantages  coast  peoples  are  usually 
superior  to  those  in  the  interior,  that  is,  if  the  coast  is 
favorable.  If  inaccessible,  or  barren,  or  out  of  the  track 
of  commerce,  the  opposite  is  true.  But  as  a  rule  coastal 
peoples  develop  first.  If  we  take  a  glance  at  Asia  we 
notice  that  civilization  and  progress  stick  very  closely  to 
the  coast,  and  that  coastal  people  are  far  superior  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  interior.  They  are  generally  of 
mixed  racial  stock.  Location  on  inland  seas  has  much 
the  same  advantage  as  that  on  the  ocean;  in  fact,  such 
locations  have  acted  earlier  as  means  of  intercourse  and 
as  cradles,  of  commerce,  for  inland  seas  have  not  held 
back  people  by  the  fear  of  the  water  as  the  ocean  has. 
Although  at  first  the  ocean  held  man  back,  acting  as  a 
barrier,  with  the  development  of  commerce  the  coast  has 
become  an  aid  to  expansion;  yet  for  political  expansion 
it  has  not  been  as  favorable  as  plains.  Favorable  location 
on  the  water  has  been  the  most  potent  factor  in  the 
advance  of  such  nations  as  Phoenicia,  Carthage,  Holland, 


Man  and  Nature  31 

and  England,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the 
rise  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Coastal  peoples  are  generally 
characterized  by  fearlessness  and  daring,  not  only  be- 
cause of  the  risks  of  their  occupations,  but  also  because 
colonists  are  ordinarily  the  boldest  and  most  venturesome 
of  people.  Therefore  the  coasts  receive  the  daring  and 
enterprising  men  and  women  of  other  nations;  and 
similarly  the  reckless  and  irresponsible.  Coastal  people, 
because  of  the  great  variety  of  food  offered  them,  gen- 
erally are  well  fed  and  strong  physically. 

With  the  development  of  world  commerce  the  ocean 
has  had  a  unifying  influence,  has  brought  together  all 
nations,  and  thus  has  carried  the  improvements  and  in- 
ventions of  each  locality  to  every  other  locality.  By 
furnishing  a  cheap  and  quick  means  of  transportation 
the  water  has  made  man  a  cosmopolitan  being.  With  the 
discovery  of  America  European  civilization  was  brought 
to  America,  and  the  contributions  that  America  had  to 
make,  such  as  the  potato,  maize,  and  the  wealth  of  her 
mines,  fisheries,  and  later  her  farms,  were  added  to  what 
Europe  already  had.  So  important  to  man  has  been  the 
navigation  of  the  sea,  that  the  neutrality  of  the  seas 
has  been  accepted  as  a  fixed  principle  of  international 
law. 

Islands  show  a  much  greater  variety  of  influences  than 
coasts.  Islanders  generally  resemble  the  people  of  the 
countries  from  which  they  come,  sometimes  improving 
upon  them,  as  formerly  in  Crete,  and  sometimes  falling 
backward.  Islands  were  settled  in  many  cases  as  places 
of  refuge.  With  the  development  of  transportation  by 
water  islands  have  lost  their  security  and  have  been 
placed  at  a  decided  disadvantage.  Because  of  their  limited 
area  their  ability  to  defend  themselves  is  generally  small 
and  they  fall  easy  victims  to  conquest.  Athens  had  little 
trouble  in  holding  in  subjection  the  members  of  the  Delian 
League;  and  Crete,  almost  since  the  beginning  of  his- 
tory, has  been  subject  to  some  other  nation.  Sardinia, 
Corsica,  and  Sicily  have  been  similarly  held.  All  the 
islands  of  the  East  Indies  are  controlled  by  European 


32  Man  and  Nature 

powers,  except  the  Philippines,  and  they  were  until  re- 
cently. Nearly  all  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies  have 
been  similarly  held;  all  would  have  been  but  for  the 
United  States.  The  islands  of  the  Pacific  are  owned  by 
the  different  powers  of  the  world;  in  fact,  Japan  is  the 
only  really  independent  island  nation.  Islands,  especially 
those  that  are  barren  and  inhospitable,  are  often  used  as 
prisons  for  convicts  and  political  offenders:  Sakhalin, 
New  Caledonia,  St.  Helena,  Elba,  and  Devil's  Island  being 
among  the  most  noted. 

Islands  have  often  been  places  of  survival  of  primitive 
peoples,  customs  and  habits.  In  fact,  after  an  island  has 
been  left  outside  of  the  track  of  progress  it  generally 
remains  stationary  while  the  rest  of  the  world  advances. 
Islands  have  been  the  homes  of  some  of  the  most  primitive 
races  that  still  persist.  Illustrations  are  Ceylon,  Borneo, 
Madagascar,  and  New  Zealand. 

Islands  are  often  barren  and  unproductive;  quite  fre^ 
quently  it  is  a  problem  for  the  inhabitants  to  live.  Often 
artificial  checks  to  population  have  been  resorted  to,  such 
as  infanticide,  limitation  of  children  through  mutilation, 
late  marriages,  and  even  cannibalism.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  supply  of  fish  often  allows  a  large  population;  some- 
times when  the  living  is  hard,  greater  ingenuity  is  devel- 
oped thereby.  Since  as  a  rule  island  climates  are  favor- 
able, islands  often  become  pleasure  or  health  resorts.  The 
pleasant  climate  frequently  makes  people  care-free  in  dis- 
position, and  because  they  meet  many  strangers  in  the 
way  of  commerce  and  trade,  if  the  islands  are  in  the 
trade  routes,  they  become  hospitable. 

Influence  of  Mountain  Environment. — The  effect  of 
mountains  as  barriers  we  have  already  suggested,  both 
as  to  how  they  shut  people  up  within  their  own  ranges 
and  keep  others  out — results  of  equal  importance.  Moun- 
tains prevent  not  only  expansion  and  invasion  but  also 
progress,  shutting  out  new  ideas,  improvements  and  in- 
ventions. They  hinder  the  inhabitants  from  coming  into 
contact  with  others,  and  tend  to  create  a  spirit  of  sus- 
picion in  regard  to  strangers.  At  the  same  time,  however, 


Man  and  Nature  33 

a  spirit  of  hardihood  and  independence  is  developed. 
Mountain  people  usually  become  fierce  fighters  and  are 
seldom,  conquered,  and  if  so,  at  great  cost  of  life.  Moun- 
tain states  are  rather  numerous,  such  as  Switzerland, 
Montenegro,  Abyssinia,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet.  Al- 
though small  and  in  some  cases  barbarian,  these  other- 
wise insignificant  states  have  nevertheless  maintained 
their  independence.  Life  is  hard  and  primitive  conditions 
frequently  prevail,  like  those  found  in  Tibet,  Abyssinia, 
and  Montenegro.  As  suggested  before,  they  become  places 
of  refuge  for  the  oppressed ;  in  fact,  the  Caucasus  is  said 
to  be  the  grave  of  races,  nations,  religions,  customs,  habits 
and  ideals.  The  Koumanians  have  saved  themselves  a 
number  of  times  by  retiring  into  the  Carpathians  and 
letting  the  invaders  pass  on. 

Mountains  have  also  been  places  of  refuge  for  criminals 
and  the  lawless  classes;  frequently  we  find  mountaineers 
with  marauding  tendencies,  being  addicted  to  cattle  steal- 
ing, brigandage,  and  plundering  in  general ;  the  Afghans, 
Kurds,  and  the  Scottish  Highlanders  have  been  noted  for 
this.  They  also  furnish  mercenary  soldiers;  the  Swiss 
were  so  employed  for  a  long  period  of  time.  Because  of 
a  lack  of  occupations  the  mountain  laborers  often  descend 
into  the  valleys;  the  Wallachs,  Tyrolians,  and  other 
mountain  inhabitants  of  the  Carpathians  and  Alps  send 
thousands  into  the  valleys  each  year  to  help  in  the  plant- 
ing and  harvesting  of  the  crops.  Mountain  peoples  are 
thus  characterized  by  their  independence,  individualism, 
frugality,  courage,  and  strong  will,  and  they  furnish  the 
world  sturdy  races.  They  are  imaginative  and  religious, 
the  grandeur  of  the  hills  impressing  them  profoundly. 

Influence  of  Plains,  Steppes  and  Deserts. — The  influ- 
ence of  plains  is  of  two  kinds,  resulting  from  the  fact  that 
plains  are  of  two  classes — the  plains  which  are  produc- 
tive, and  those  which  are^  unproductive  and  barren.  The 
former  foster  pastoral  and  agricultural  occupations,  and 
allow  political  expansion  and  the  building  up  of  vast 
empires.  The  influences  that  encourage  uniformity  of 
government  and  occupation  also  are  effective  in  all  forms 


84  Man  and  Nature 

of  activity.  The  plains  swallow  up  nationalities, 
languages  and  customs;  they  tend  always  to  produce 
uniformity.  There  is  no  chance  for  separation,  no  oppor- 
tunity for  individualism.  Russia,  for  example,  has 
more  uniformity  than  almost  any  other  great  nation. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  deserts  and  barren  wastes,  such 
as  are  found  in  the  Sahara,  in  Arabia,  and  in  Mongolia, 
are  generally  pastoral  or  commercial  by  occupation,  but 
they  lack  uniformity.  They  go  in  bands,  and  are  often 
addicted  to  marauding  and  to  sweeping  down  upon  their 
more  prosperous  neighbors  to  carry  off  their  wealth. 
Their  mobility  is  great;  it  is  often  compulsory,  because 
of  scarcity  of  provisions.  Many  are  compelled  to  migrate 
with  the  seasons,  going  to  the  hills  during  the  hot  season 
to  find  pasturage  and  back  to  the  plains  during  the  brief 
wet  season.  This  compulsory  roaming  makes  them 
nomadic,  and  they  easily  form  bands  for  plundering. 
Their  life  being  hard  they. are  fearless,  ingenious,  and 
watchful,  and  they  make  excellent  fighters;  no  better 
cavalry  can  be  found  anywhere  than  the  Russian 
Cossacks. 

Plainsmen  seldom  unite  in  large  armies;  the  Moham- 
medan conquest  was  an  exceptional  occurrence,  made  pos- 
sible because  of  religious  fanaticism.  As  a  rule  when 
they  do  conquer  any  region,  they  seldom  interfere  with 
the  life  of  the  common  people,  supplanting  only  the  rul- 
ing class,  as  the  Manchus  did  in  China  and  as  the  Shep- 
herd Kings  did  in  Egypt.  On  the  other  hand,  these 
people  are  hard  to  conquer  because  of  the  ease  of  retreat 
and  the  difficulty  of  pursuit.  Hence  the  inhabitants  of 
these  regions  of  the  world  have  generally  maintained 
their  independence  in  spite  of  powerful  neighbors.  The 
Arabs  have  enjoyed  practical  independence;  the  same  is 
true  of  the  Mongols  and  the  inhabitants  of  northern 
Africa.  Because  of  scant  diet  such  plainsmen  are  -com- 
pelled to  be  frugal  and  are  active,  sinewy,  and  energetic. 
They  are  proud,  even  to  the  point  of  obstinacy,  because 
of  their  independent,  roaming  life. 

These  people  act  as  middlemen  for  the  more  productive 


Man  and  Nature  35 

regions  near  them ;  the  goods  formerly  were  brought  from 
the  East  to  Europe  by  caravans  of  these  wanderers  of  the 
desert,  and  this  method  is  used  in  northern  Africa  to-day. 
In  connection  with  this  trade  they  have  developed  desert 
markets  or  trading  centers;  Timbuctoo  in  Africa  and 
Bagdad  and  Damascus  in  Asia  Minor  formerly  were 
famed  as  commercial  centers.  They  have  trafficked  in 
slaves,  thus  helping  to  keep  alive  this  institution.  But 
probably  the  greatest  contribution  of  these  peoples  to 
civilization  has  been  the  religious  concepts  they  have 
formed  and  promulgated.  In  history  they  have  played 
an  erratic  but  important  role. 

Influence  of  Climate. — The  influence  of  climate  has  been 
both  physiological  and  psychological.  It  has  fixed  limits 
to  human  habitation,  determined  the  productivity  of  the 
soil,  and  affected  man's  whole  life.  It  has  affected  him 
both  directly  and  indirectly ;  directly  by  determining  tem- 
perature conditions  under  which  he  shall  live;  indirectly 
by  determining  his  food  supply.  The  amount  of  rainfall 
determines  the  productiveness  of  the  soil;  for  it  is  only 
in  the  last  few  years  that  man  has  been  able  to  farm 
on  a  large  scale  without  rain,  although  irrigation  as  a 
means  of  supplying  water  is  very  ancient.  Climate  has 
compelled  man  to  migrate,  a  bad  climate  forcing  him  to 
leave,  and  a  good  climate  tempting  him  to  enter.  It  has 
affected  human  institutions,  influencing  the  family  by 
causing  early  marriages,  many  children,  and  little  regard 
for  life  in  warm  climates;  and  late  marriages  and  few 
children  in  colder  ones.  It  has  affected  government, 
despotism  existing  more  often  in  warm,  unhealthful 
climates,  and  democracy  in  temperate  zones.  Slavery, 
as  we  have  noticed,  has  been  fostered  in  climates  where 
work  is  irksome. 

In  warm  climates  we  find  greater  extremes  of  wealth 
and  poverty,  wages  being  poor  because  of  the  low  cost 
of  labor,  and  at  times  because  of  competition  with  slave 
labor.  Moreover,  a  warm  climate,  especially  if  con- 
tinuous, has  a  detrimental  effect;  in  fact,  the  individual 
or  the  race  going  to  the  tropics  or  to  a  warm,  moist 


36  Man  and  Nature 

climate  rapidly  deteriorates.  People  in  these  regions  be- 
come easy  going,  hot-headed,  yet  imaginative  and  artistic, 
while  those  in  colder  climates  are  calmer,  more  thought- 
ful, and  provident.  Temperate  zones  offer  a  greater 
variety  of  climate,  it  being  cold  in  winter  and  warm  in 
summer,  thus  making  possible  a  larger  variety  of  occu- 
pations and  furnishing  more  varied  stimulus  to  mental 
activity.  For  this  reason  we  find  the  nations  located  in  the 
temperate  zones  more  energetic,  ambitious,  and  success- 
ful; as  a  result  the  north  temperate  zone  is  known  as 
the  cradle  of  civilization.  Extreme  cold  produces  much 
the  same  result  as  extreme  warmth  in  that  it  becomes 
monotonous  and  has  a  deadening  effect. 

Not  only  the  history  but  also  the  location  and  the  size 
of  the  present  nations  have  been  affected  by  geographic 
conditions.  Nature  sets  their  boundaries,  determines  to 
a  great  extent  their  economic  activity,  influences  their 
institutions  and  daily  life,  helps  mold  their  character, 
and  determines  their  chances  of  success  in  the  advance 
of  civilization.  Yet  we  must  not  go  to  the  extreme  by 
saying  that  geography  is  everything;  it  is  only  one  of 
the  factors  to  be  considered  in  studying  the  life  of  man. 
It  may  be  very  important  but  it  is  not  all  by  any  means ; 
other  contributing  forces  must  be  considered,  such  as 
heredity  and  human  instincts;  in  fact,  the  economic,  bio- 
logical, and  psychological  factors  are  fully  as  important 
as  the  geographic. 


READING  REFERENCES 

KELSET,  CARL,  Physical  Basis  of  Society. 

SEMPLE,  ELLEN  C.,  Influence  of  Geographic  Environment. 

SEMPLE,  ELLEN  C.,  American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Con- 
ditions. 

BUCKLE,  H.  T.,  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Civilization  in 
England,  Chap.  II.,  also  found  in  CARVER,  Sociology  and 
Social  Progress,  pp.  174-270. 

VAN  HISE,  CHARLES  R.,  The  Conservation  of  Natural  Eesources 
in  the  United  States. 

HUNTINGTON,  ELLSWORTH,  Civilization  and  Climate. 


CHAPTER  III 
VARIATION,  HEREDITY  AND  EUGENICS 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  considered  the  effects 
of  geography  upon  the  growth  of  society  and  the  develop- 
ment of  human  institutions.  In  other  places  we  consider 
economic  effects  and  the  control  of  society  through  its 
institutions.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  an- 
other approach  to  the  study  of  sociology ;  to  indicate  the 
effects  of  heredity  upon  man  and  the  development  of 
society.  Of  the  two  great  sets  of  forces  operating  upon 
humanity — heredity  and  environment — it  is  our  turn  now 
to  take  up  heredity.  In  this  undertaking,  let  us  discuss 
the  great  biological  theories  and  laws  of  variation  and 
heredity,  avoiding  as  much  of  the  scientific  terminology 
as  possible,  so  that  one  who  is  not  a  biologist  can  grasp 
them.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  cover  all  phases  of 
the  various  theories  or  laws,  but  only  to  touch  those  which 
will  be  useful  to  us  in  our  attempt  to  arrive  at  a  better 
understanding  of  the  workings  of  society. 

Theories  and  Laws  of  Variation  and  Heredity. — In- 
heritance of  Acquired  Characteristics.  —  Lamarck,  the 
French  zoologist,  gave  this  theory  to  the  world  in  1809. 
In  his  study  of  animals  he  had  noted  the  adaptation  of 
organs  to  environment  and  use ;  that  muscles  and  various 
organs  tended  to  develop  with  use  and  the  demand  for 
them.  He  also  noted  that  various  animals  were  peculiarly 
adapted  .to  their  particular  environment,  noticing  the 
adaptation  of  the  long  neck  of  the  giraffe  to  its  feeding 
on  the  foliage  of  trees;  also  the  long  neck  of  the  goose 
to  its  method  of  living;  and  the  thick  fur  of  Arctic 
animals.  From  these  observations  he  worked  out  the 
following  general  laws:  (1)  Life  by  its  internal  forces 
tends  continually  to  increase  the  volume  of  body  and 
size  of  parts  of  the  body  up  to  a  limit  which  it  (life) 

37 

4  7  fi  £  9 


38  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

brings  about.  (2)  The  production  of  a  new  organ  or 
part  results  from  a  new  need  or  want  (produced  by  a 
change  in  environment)  and  this  need  or  want  continues 
to  be  felt  by  the  living  material.  (3)  The  development 
of  organs  and  their  power  of  action  is  in  direct  relation 
to  the  employment  of  the  organ.  If  organs  are  not  used 
they  degenerate  through  disuse.  (4)  Characters  which 
are  acquired  through  use  by  an  individual  are  inherited 
by  the  progeny,  and  are  thus  not  only  continued  but 
increased ;  each  new  generation  has  the  advantage  of  the 
development  of  the  preceding  one.  This  theory  was  never 
very  carefully  worked  out  by  Lamarck  and  remained 
largely  theoretical.  Upon  it,  however,  were  based  the 
evolutionary  theories  of  many  biologists.  It  has  been 
largely  disproved  by  the  investigations  of  Weismann  and 
others,  and  is  to-day  greatly  discredited.  Its  greatest 
contribution  was  possibly  the  directing  of  attention  to- 
wards a  definite  field  of  work,  and  thus  furnishing  a 
stimulus  for  more  study  and  investigation. 

Natural  Selection. — This  might  be  divided  into  "survival 
of  the  fittest"  and  "natural  selection,"  but  since  they 
are  really  only  different  phases  or  expressions  of  the  same 
general  principle,  both  will  be  treated  under  one  head. 
While  more  or  less  the  gradual  product  of  a  period  of 
time,  we  are  indebted  to  Spencer,  Darwin,  and  Wallace 
for  the  definite  statement  of  this  theory. 

The  idea  of  ' '  the  survival  of  the  fittest ' '  is  easy  to  grasp, 
for  it  simply  means  that  in  the  struggle  for  existence 
the  strongest  and  most  fit  live  and  thus  propagate  and 
so  survive;  while  the  weakest  and  least  fit  die  through 
starvation,  disease,  or  at  the  hands  of  the  stronger  and 
more  fit.  By  "fittest"  we  of  course  do  not  always  mean 
strongest,  for  at  times  cunning,  shrewdness,  and  the 
ability  to  overcome  or  avoid  difficulties  and  dangers  are 
of  greater  consequence  than  the  mere  matter  of  physical 
strength.  At  times  "fittest"  might  even  mean  the  pos- 
session of  the  greatest  speed  in  order  to  run  away  from 
danger,  or  the  ability  to  climb  trees,  or  to  hide  or  even 
avoid  notice  on  the  part  of  the  enemy.  The  principle  is 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  39 

the  same,  however,  whether  it  is  a  question  of  physical 
strength,  mental  keenness,  cunning,  speed,  or  the  ability 
to  overcome  difficulties  and  survive  in  the  face  of  danger. 
It  is  the  most  fit  which  survive  and  the  least  fit  which 
are  eliminated.  Nor  does  this  always  mean  the  survival 
of  the  best,  i.e.  from  the  ethical  or  moral  standpoint,  for 
the  ''fittest"  might  mean  the  ability  to  live  on  the  poorest 
food  and  to  endure  the  greatest  discomforts,  and  so  repre- 
sent the  ability  to  survive  in  the  face  of  difficulties.  This 
principle  is  true  not  only  in  the  struggle  for  food  and 
other  means  of  subsistence,  but  is  equally  valid  in  the 
struggle  for  mates.  When  two  animals  desire  the  same 
mate,  and  it  becomes  a  question  of  fighting  for  her,  it 
will  be  the  best  fighter  which  will  win  her  and  thus  become 
the  father  of  the  next  generation.  Even  when  it  is  not 
left  to  the  decision  of  combat,  it  is  the  one  which  is  the 
most  attractive,  either  by  size,  strength,  beauty,  or  the 
ability  to  attract,  which  is  selected  and  thus  transmits 
these  characteristics  to  succeeding  generations. 

The  Natural  Selection  Theory  has  the  following  phases: 

(1)  There  are  small  variations  in  organisms  in  nature. 

(2)  These  variations  will  be  of  benefit  or  injury  to  the 
organism.      (3)    Certain   variations   will   be   selected   in 
nature  on  account  of  the  struggle  for  existence.     (4)  The 
struggle  for  existence  is  due  to  competition  for  food  and 
other  means  of  subsistence.     (5)  Out  of  this  struggle  will 
come  the  development  of  organisms  with  characters  which 
fit  them  to  survive.    The  organisms  that  have  variations 
which  do  not  fit  them  to  survive  will  tend  to  be  eliminated, 
and  thus  the  variations  will  perish  with  them.    The  char- 
acters that  are  beneficial  are  passed  on  and  increased, 
since  the  organisms  possessing  them  are  continually  vary- 
ing in  that  direction  in  succeeding  generations.     Thus 
according  to  natural  selection  nature  selects  the  most  fit 
by  permitting  them  to  live  and  by  the  elimination  of  the 
unfit.     What  is  the  most  "fit"  in  one  place  might  not 
be  in  another;  thus  it  means  that  nature  selects  those 
qualities  which  are  most  adapted  to  the  particular  en- 
vironment in  question.    Those  individuals  or  races  which 


40  Variation.,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

are  adapted  or  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  environ- 
mental condition  live  and  increase  in  numbers,  while 
those  not  adapted  or  incapable  of  adaptation  perish ;  thus 
whether  a  group  will  live,  increase,  or  die  out,  will  be  a 
question  of  adaptation.  In  a  desert  country  only  those 
animals  which  are  able  to  live  on  a  small  amount  of 
water  or  are  capable  of  going  long  periods  of  time  without 
water  will  survive.  Hence  animals  which  are  able  to 
store  up  water,  like  the  camel,  or  have  skins  or  coverings 
which  prevent  or  retard  evaporation  of  moisture,  tend 
to  survive  in  desert  countries.  In  contrast  with  this,  in 
wet,  rainy  regions,  only  those  animals  which  are  capable 
of  living  under  conditions  of  extreme  moisture  are  able 
to  survive.  In  Arctic  regions  only  those  animals  which 
develop  thick  coats  of  fur  or  other  means  of  protection, 
such  as  layers  of  fat,  survive ;  also  races  which  are  ener- 
getic and  provident  are  more  apt  to  live  in  cold,  bleak 
regions  than  those  which  are  improvident  and  lazy.  In 
tropical  regions  the  opposite  qualities  are  required,  and 
those  which  can  stand  the  heat  or  are  able  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  it  survive. 

With  man,  those  races  of  people  which  are  less  ener- 
getic, more  contented,  and  have  high  birth-rates  tend  to 
live,  while  those  which  are  of  driving  nervous  tempera- 
ment, and  have  low  birth-rates,  are  less  able  to  survive 
and  more  apt  to  perish.  We  notice  the  working  of  this 
law  in  studying  the  characteristics  of  the  Nordic  and 
Negro  races.  In  the  bleak,  cold  regions  of  the  Baltic 
and  North  Seas,  where  the  Anglo-Saxon  developed,  there 
was  an  elimination  of  the  weak,  the  improvident,  the  lazy, 
and  the  cowardly  and  the  survival  of  the  daring,  the 
energetic,  and  the  fighting  types.  In  Africa,  as  we  shall 
see  in  our  study  of  our  race  problem,  we  have  had  th'e 
survival  of  extremely  different  characteristics.  Again  in 
China  we  find  the  survival  of  the  complacent,  thoughtful, 
frugal  types  and  those  capable  of  long  periods  of  sus- 
tained exertion  upon  a  limited  supply  of  food.  The  varia- 
tions which  are  advantageous  not  only  persist  but  in- 
crease, while  the  variations  which  are  not  advantageous 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  41 

'do  not  persist.  In  this  way;  we  have  a  selection  of  the 
most  fit. 

We  have  already  considered  how  in  the  struggle  for 
mates  the  most  fit,  both  in  fighting  ability  and  in  the  powers 
of  attraction,  are  selected.  In  this  way  the  desired  qualities 
will  tend  to  be  inherited,  while  the  qualities  which  are 
not  desired  will  be  eliminated.  This  is  generally  called 
sexual  selection.  Among  animals  and  birds  especially,  it 
applies  to  brilliancy  of  plumage,  distinctive  coloring  in 
the  way  of  stripes,  and  other  markings.  With  man  it 
means  personal  attraction  and  agreeableness  of  tem- 
perament, or  the  selection  of  the  desired  qualities  and 
the  passing  on  to  the  succeeding  generations  of  these 
qualities  or  characteristics.  This  is  merely  another  phase 
of  the  general  law  of  natural  selection. 

Stock  breeders  make  use  of  the  principle  of  selection 
by  the  artificial  selection  of  animals  which  possess  the 
beginnings  of  desired  modifications,  such  as  exceptional 
speed  in  race-horses,  extraordinary  beef  or  milk  pro- 
ducing qualities  in  cattle,  and  quality  of  fur  in  fur-pro- 
ducing animals.  They  breed  these  animals  with  others 
having  similar  qualities,  and  eliminate  all  animals  which 
do  not  have  the  desired  qualities.  Then  the  offspring 
which  show  the  desired  modifications  are  again  selected 
and  mated,  and  those  which  do  not  exhibit  the  characters 
which  are  wanted  are  again  eliminated.  In  this  way 
stocks  are  improved  and  new  breeds  produced. 

Germinal  Selection. — The  next  great  theory  of  inheri- 
tance was  the  "germinal  selection"  theory  of  Weismann. 
This  is  directly  opposed  to  the  theory  of  inheritance  of 
acquired  characteristics,  and  was  so  ably  demonstrated 
by  Weismann  and  his  followers,  that  the  former  theory 
is  now  discredited  in  the  minds  of  the  majority  of 
biologists.  According  to  Weismann,  the  selection  of  char- 
acters is  within  the  germ  plasm.  Combinations,  both  new 
and  old,  of  characters  are  carried  by  the  chromosomes 
within  the  germ  cell.  The  possible  loss  of  characters 
comes  about  by  means  of  these  combinations.  Characters 
are  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring  through  the 


42  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

germ  cell,  and  new  types  arise  only  from  changed  types 
of  germ  cells.  Weismann  does  admit  a  struggle  of  char- 
acters, but  contends  that  this  struggle  of  "  determiners " 
is  within  the  germ  cell,  and  it  is  a  struggle  for  the  avail- 
able food  and  favorable  position  in  the  germ  cell,  and 
that  those  which  receive  the  food  and  obtain  the  favorable 
positions  become  the  stronger.  Then,  in  turn,  these  char- 
acters are  passed  on  to  the  next  generation,  where  they 
tend  not  only  to  persist  but  to  increase  in  importance. 
In  the  same  way  the  weaker  characters,  or  "determiners," 
grow  still  weaker  and  in  the  course  of  time  tend  to  be 
eliminated. 

This  theory  does  not  exclude  natural  selection,  but 
rather  adds  to  and  increases  its  importance,  and  helps 
to  explain  many  details  which  natural  selection  was  not 
able  to  do.  It  does,  however,  oppose  and  upset  many 
of  the  theories  of  evolution  based  upon  Lamarck's  "in- 
heritance of  acquired  characteristics"  theory.  While 
there  have  been  many  modifications  of  germinal  selection, 
the  theory  still  holds  and  is  widely  accepted.  This  theory 
is  of  vital  importance  to  sociologists,  especially  those  in- 
terested in  constructive  programs  of  reform  for  deal- 
ing with  such  problems  as  the  feeble-minded,  the  insane, 
the  epileptic,  the  criminal,  and  the  vicious. 

Mutation  Theory. — Another  theory,  which  is  much  less 
understood  than  the  last  two,  is  De  Vries's  "mutation 
theory."  Briefly  stated,  it  means  a  sudden  or  "over- 
night" change,  or  the  sudden  emergence  of  a  new  type. 
It  is  in  part  similar  to  the  germ  plasm  theory,  and  in 
part  based  upon  other  laws  of  heredity,  especially  the 
Mendelian  law.  It  is  based  upon  the  combinations  of 
chromosome,  characters.  The  theory  is  now  becoming 
generally  accepted  that  these  new  types  are  really  due 
to  some  new  and  peculiar  combination  of  characters  which 
already  existed,  with  the  possible  elimination  of  some 
characters ;  so  it  is  one  of  the  variations  or  peculiar  phases 
of  that  theory  and  explains  the  big  changes  which  sud- 
denly take  place,  instead  of  the  small  variations  which 
usually  occur.  While  not  wholly  understood,  this  theory 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  43 

is  now  being  put  into  practice  by  breeders  and  some  of 
our  new  breeds  or  types,  such  as  hornless  cattle,  are 
results  of  its  application. 

The  Mendelian  Law. — Last  and  most  important  of  all, 
sociologically,  is  the  biological  law  discovered  by  the  Aus- 
trian monk,  Mendel.  The  central  feature  of  this  discovery 
is  the  explanation  of  the  "dominant"  and  "recessive" 
characteristics.  The  dominant  character  tends  to  be  in- 
herited in  a  much  greater  ratio  than  the  recessive  char- 
acters. While  estimates  as  to  the  exactness  of  this  ratio 
differ,  it  is  in  the  general  proportion  of  three  to  one. 
While  we  are  still  experimenting  with  animals  and  ob- 
serving and  tabulating  results,  we  are  slowly  finding  out 
with  human  beings  what  some  of  these  dominant  and 
recessive  characters  are.  For  instance,  we  have  noticed 
and  generally  accepted  that  dark  hair  is  dominant  over 
light;  brown  eyes  over  blue;  average  intellect  over  the 
very  brilliant  or  the  dull;  normal  minds  over  feeble- 
mindedness, and  many  forms  of  insanity  and  irregulari- 
ties of  the  nervous  system.  All  normal  characteristics  are 
not  dominant,  however,  over  defects. 

Another  feature  of  Mendelism  is  the  phenomenon  of 
segregation  of  the  determiners.  While  characters  may 
unite  in  a  common  germ  plasm  for  a  single  generation, 
they  separate  pure  and  unmodified  in  the  next  and  sub- 
sequent generations.  In  other  words,  a  germ  cell  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  separately  inherited  characters, 
which  are  capable  of  a  vast  amount  of  groupings  and 
regroupings.  Only  in  these  groupings  the  characters 
which  are  dominant  will  tend  to  appear  about  three  times 
as  often  as  those  which  are  recessive.  Mendelism  instead 
of  opposing  the  mutation  theory  really  is  in  harmony  with 
it,  and  offers  a  solution  for  this  apparently  inexplainable 
phenomenon  of  a  mutation  or  sudden  appearance  of  a 
new  type.  It  also  helps  to  explain  many  hitherto  difficult 
features  of  inheritance,  which  we  had  long  observed  in 
society. 

In  a  work  of  this  nature,  complete  explanation  of 
heredity  is  out  of  the  question.  Neither  have  we  time 


44  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

even  to  mention  all  the  theories  or  laws.  Instead,  our 
aim  is  merely  to  give  such  laws  and  theories  as  will  be 
of  the  greatest  help  to  the  student  in  obtaining  a  general 
introductory  idea  of  the  workings  of  society  and  its  prob- 
lems. In  short,  we  cannot  write  a  text  on  biology,  or  even 
part  of  one.  Our  object  is  merely  to  indicate  a  few  of 
the  biological  approaches.  We  will  now  take  up  some 
of  the  conditions  encountered  in  our  application  of  these 
principles  to  human  society,  and  some  special  social 
problems. 

Difficulties  in  the  Study  of  Human  Heredity. — The  first 
obstacle  in  the  study  of  human  inheritance  is  the  fact 
that  we  cannot  experiment,  as  in  the  case  of  rabbits,  mice 
or  rats.  We  can  merely  observe  and  tabulate  our  observa- 
tions. Then  there  are  no  pure  lines  to  deal  with,  for 
all  races  are  intermixtures  and  our  leading  races  are 
greatly  mixed.  Man  is  also  a  very  slow  breeding  animal 
In  fact,  we  have  had  only  about  sixty  generations  since 
the  time  of  Christ,  a  number  reached  by  many  animals 
in  a  few  years,  and  by  some  insects  in  a  few  months  or 
even  weeks.  In  addition,  man  has  very  few  offspring, 
generally  too  few  to  be  valuable  for  any  scientific  study. 
Out  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  possibilities  a  human 
pair  will  have  a  limited  number  of  children,  too  few  for 
any  statistical  purposes  in  the  study  of  inheritance.  To 
obtain  any  sort  of  reliable  statistics  one  must  study  several 
generations,  and  this  is  very  difficult  and  in  most  families 
impossible.  No  tabulator  can  wait  for  many  future  gen- 
erations. 

The  period  of  infancy  is  much  longer  with  man  than 
with  most  animals.  While  most  animals  are  able  to  shift 
for  themselves  in  a  few  months,  man  is  dependent  for 
many  years.  The  colt  or  calf  can  walk  in  a  few  minutes 
or  hours,  run  in  a  few  days,  and  obtain  its  own  living 
in  a  few  weeks.  The  human  infant  is  absolutely  dependent 
at  birth,  and  seldom  walks  or  talks  before  a  year,  and 
is  unable  to  make  its  own  living  for  many  years.  This 
dependence  is  increasing  in  length  as  civilization  increases 
in  complexity,  and  standards  of  living  rise  because  of 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  45 

the  greater  preparation  needed.  Because  of  this  long 
period  of  dependence  and  the  requirements  in  the  way 
of  education  demanded  to  meet  the  conditions  of  modern 
society,  man's  dependence  upon  environment  in  the  way 
of  home  training  and  education  is  much  greater  than  with 
animals ;  only  man  has  the  ability  to  control  his  environ- 
ment instead  of  being  entirely  dependent  upon  it.  Yet 
in  spite  of  all  these  difficulties,  the  influence  of  heredity 
upon  him  must  be  considered.  Some  claim  that  sociology 
rests  absolutely  upon  biology.  While  we  cannot  go  to  that 
extreme,  we  must  recognize  biology  as  one  of  the  basic 
sciences,  and  some  knowledge  of  biology — especially  the 
parts  which  deal  with  heredity — is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  equipment  of  the  sociologist. 

Peculiarities  Noted  in  Human  Heredity. — One  fact  we 
notice  in  our  study  of  heredity  is,  that  no  matter  how 
great  the  achievements  of  the  parents  the  children  mus't 
learn  all  from  the  beginning.  Every  child  has  to  learn 
to  talk,  to  walk,  and  to  perform  all  the  accomplishments 
of  everyday  life.  It  may  inherit  talent  or  a  quickness 
of  perception  or  natural  ability  along  certain  lines,  yet 
the  actual  accomplishment  has  to  be  acquired  anew. 

Characters  are  determined  at  the  time  of  fertilization. 
Formerly  it  was  believed  that  the  nature  of  the  offspring 
could  be  influenced  by  what  the  mother  did,  saw,  or  heard 
during  pregnancy;  that  the  nature  of  the  child  could  be 
determined  by  seeing  some  strange  object,  or  because  of 
fright.  Even  bodily  defects  were  explained  by  this  now 
long-exploded  idea;  such  as  a  mark  on  the  body  like  a 
snake  being  caused  by  the  mother  seeing  a  snake  during 
pregnancy.  Of  course  a  severe  blow  might  injure  the 
unborn  child,  and  severe  fright  might  even  injure  by 
affecting  the  flow  of  nourishment  to  the  foetus,  but  these 
are  rare  in  occurrence  and  the  effects  are  not  nearly  as 
great  as  one  would  think.  But  mental  traits  are  irrev- 
ocably determined  at  the  time  of  the  fertilization  of  the 
ovum  by  the  spermatozoa.  Also  except  for  allowances  as 
suggested  above,  physical  characters  are  likewise  deter- 
mined. 


46  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

Another  peculiarity  noted  is  the  liability  of  inheritance 
from  the  different  ancestors.  Often  brothers  or  sisters 
are  much  unlike,  and  all  are  almost  certain  to  vary  in 
some  particulars.  Often  children  apparently  do  not  re- 
semble either  parent,  inheriting  peculiar  combinations  of 
characteristics  from  both,  or  showing  resemblances  to 
ancestors  farther  back  in  the  line.  Students  of  heredity 
have  studied  this  question,  and  while  this  seems  to  follow 
the  laws  of  Mendelian  inheritance,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
explain,  largely  because  of  the  few  offspring  of  the  human 
species  and  the  wide  variety  of  possibilities.  Professor 
Karl  Pearson  has  worked  out  a  geometrical  series  to 
explain  this,  in  which  he  ascribes  to  the  two  parents 
.6244  or  a  little  over  three-fifths  of  the  hereditary  peculiari- 
ties of  each  individual;  to  the  four  grandparents  .1988 
or  almost  one-fifth;  to  the  eight  great-grandparents  .OftS 
or  a  little  over  six  per  cent;  and  to  the  sixteen  great- 
great-grandparents  .0202.  While  such  a  curve  is  interest- 
ing, it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  a  mathematical  series 
rather  than  a  biological  one,  and  must  not  be  taken  too 
seriously.  While  the  chance  of  inheritance  grows  smaller 
with  each  preceding  generation,  the  chance  is  always 
there.  This  does  not  mean  that  one  individual  will  in- 
herit any  such  percentage  from  each  and  all  of  his  an- 
cestors. He  might  inherit  a  great  deal  from  one  particular 
ancestor  and  little  if  any  from  others.  He  might  inherit 
little  from  his  father  and  a  great  deal  from  his  maternal 
grandfather,  or  vice  versa.  It  is  simply  meant  that  his 
chance  of  inheritance  is  much  greater  from  the  immediate 
ancestors,  and  becomes  less  with  each  degree  of  remote- 
ness. 

Inbreeding  is  another  feature  which  is  difficult  to 
explain,  and  is  therefore  often  misunderstood.  There  is 
an  almost  universal  horror  of  incest,  and  the  idea  is 
general  that  mating  with  those  closely  related  is  very 
injurious  to  the  offspring.  With  the  ignorant  this  is  an 
explanation  often  given  for  all  sorts  of  maladjustments, 
such  as  feeble-mindedness,  deafness,  and  insanity.  In- 
vestigations do  not  always  prove  this  supposition;  in  fact, 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  47 

they  often  oppose  it.  It  is  now  becoming  generally  ac- 
cepted among  students  of  this  problem  that  it  is  largely 
a  question  of  the  original  stock.  If  the  stock  is  good  to 
begin  with,  inbreeding  is  not  necessarily  injurious ;  in  fact, 
it  is  often  beneficial.  If  the  original  stock  is  bad,  then 
it  is  injurious,  for  the  bad  strain  is  inherited  from  both 
sides  and  is  thus  increased.  The  principal  argument 
against  inbreeding  is  that  it  does  not  permit  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  elements,  and  thus  would  tend  merely  towards 
a  continuation  of  the  type,  or  a  static  condition.  In  the 
breeding  of  animals,  inbreeding  is  often  resorted  to,  in 
order  to  perfect  specializations  or  the  development  of 
some  particular  type,  and  often  is  responsible  for  im- 
provements in  stock. 

A  fact  or  condition  which  must  be  noted  or  remembered 
is  the  almost  total  violation  of  all  rules  of  breeding  on 
the  part  of  man.  In  breeding  animals  we  eliminate  in- 
ferior stock  and  try  to  breed  only  the  better  or  more 
perfect  animals,  but  with  human  beings  we  permit  all 
to  marry  and  produce  descendants,  segregating  only  a 
very  few  classes,  such  as  the  insane  or  criminals.  Not 
only  is  this  true,  but  the  inferior  stocks  are  the  very 
ones  which  have  the  most  numerous  progeny;  while  our 
most  fit  mentally  have  the  smallest  number  of  children. 
It  seems  as  if  at  times  the  more  inferior  the  stock  the 
larger  the  family,  and  the  abler  the  individuals  the  smaller 
the  number  of  children.  We  merely  note  this  condition 
here,  and  postpone  discussion  to  the  time  when  we  take 
up  the  study  of  eugenics  and  race  suicide. 

Application  of  Heredity  to  Social  Problems. — Immigra- 
tion.— Heredity  is  now  being  considered  more  and  more 
seriously  in  regard  to  this  great  problem  of  population. 
Not  only  must  we  consider  the  economic  status,  religious 
life,  moral  and  ethical  planes  and  political  ideals  of  our 
immigrants,  but  we  must  look  lip  their  racial  stock.  Are 
these  immigrants  descended  from  strong  successful  races, 
or  are  they  the  descendants  of  defeated  races,  who  because 
of  weaknesses  were  conquered  by  the  more  fit?  Do  our 
immigrants  come  from  races  which  have  conquered  diffi- 


48  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

culties,  and  thus  won  places  for  themselves  in  the  develop- 
ment of  civilization,  or  are  they  the  descendants  of  serfs 
and  slaves,  who  became  serfs  or  slaves  because  they  were 
inferior  or  belonged  to  inferior  races?  The  Northern 
European,  as  a  rule,  is  the  descendant  of  successful  races; 
while  many,  if  not  the  majority,  of  those  who  seek  admis- 
sion from  Southern  Europe  are  descendants  of  former 
slave  populations,  having  back  of  them  centuries  of  unsuc- 
cessful ancestors.  When  we  study  immigration  we  must 
take  into  consideration  questions  of  color,  height,  weight, 
inherited  tendencies,  as  well  as  physical  stamina  and  men- 
tal vigor  and  alertness.  If  the  people  who  migrate  to 
America  are  smaller,  less  hardy,  and  weaker  physically 
than  the  natives,  it  will  be  only  a  question  of  time  till 
the  vitality  of  the  race  will  be  lowered.  The  same  is  true 
in  regard  to  such  mental  characteristics  as  perseverance, 
courage,  initiative,  alertness,  and  ability  to  think.  If 
immigrants  are  inferior  in  such  qualities,  it  will  mean  a 
lowering  of  our  standards  and  a  decline  in  our  success 
as  a  nation.  Madison  Grant,  in  his  Passing  of  the 
Great  Race,  takes  the  position  that  by  out-breeding  the 
Southern  Europeans  are  as  relentlessly  strangling  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  other  Nordic  races,  as  if  they  were  kill- 
ing them  in  physical  combat.  While  this  may  be  an 
exaggeration,  we  do  notice  that  our  immigrants,  especially 
the  least  desirable  ones,  have  far  more  children  than  do 
the  native  Americans,  especially  the  natives  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  races.  Our  legislators  are  now  awake  to  such 
dangers  and  are  doing  their  best  to  deal  with  this  problem 
in  the  passing  of  legislation  in  regard  to  immigration. 

The  Race  Problem. — In  connection  with  the  study  of  the 
coming  together  of  any  two  vitally  different  races,  the 
inheritance  of  characteristics  must  be  seriously  considered. 
This  is  especially  true  in  regard  to  our  negro  problem. 
Davenport  has  made  extensive  investigations  in  regard 
to  the  application  of  the  Mendelian  laws  of  inheritance 
in  the  crossing  of  the  negro  and  the  white.1  Although  the 

1  Davenport,  C.  B.,  Heredity  of  SJcin  Color  in  Negro-White  Crosses, 
Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1913. 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  49 

study  is  too  technical  for  a  work  of  this  nature,  attention 
is  hereby  called  to  it.  While  the  methods  of  investigation 
have  been  much  criticized  and  therefore  the  results  are 
in  doubt,  this  is  probably  our  most  extensive  study  of 
this  nature,  and  while  subject  to  corrections  it  offers  many 
suggestions.  In  applying  Mendelism  to  this  amalgamation 
we  find  that  many  negro  characteristics  are  dominant 
over  those  of  the  white,  such  as  the  dark  pigment  under 
the  skin  over  its  absence ;  curly  or  kinky  hair  over  straight 
hair ;  and  thick  lips  over  thin.  Thus  instead  of  the  white 
absorbing  the  negro  because  it  outnumbers  the  black 
population  in  the  ratio  of  about  ten  to  one,  we  would  find 
that  the  negro  characteristics  would  tend  to  increase  till 
we  became  a  mixed  or  mulatto  race.  Thus  Mendelism 
proves  that  the  white  could  not  absorb  the  negro.  Also 
there  would  appear  the  same  ratio  of  pure  blacks  who 
would  breed  pure  black,  and  while  there  would  be  a 
definite  ratio  of  pure  whites  who  would  breed  pure  white, 
they  would  be  outnumbered  by  the  blacks  in  the  ratio 
of  three  to  one.  Then  since  we  have  not  only  the  question 
of  the  black  pigment,  but  the  yellow  pigment,  thick  lips, 
flat  nose,  curly  and  kinky  hair,  and  other  negro  char- 
acteristics to  deal  with,  many  of  which  are  also  dominant, 
we  find  that  the  chances  of  obtaining  a  pure  white  in  all 
particulars  from  the  mating  of  mulattoes  is  about  one  in 
a  thousand.  Yet  there  is  nothing  definite  by  which  wo 
can  prove  the  oft-repeated  statement  that  "one  descended 
from  a  negro  is  always  liable  to  produce  pure  negro." 

The  application  of  Mendelism  to  the  inheritance  of 
color  and  similar  characteristics  is  not  the  whole  story 
in  dealing  with  the  negro  problem.  We  must  consider 
natural  selection  and  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  but  these 
are  treated  in  our  chapter  on  the  race  problem.  The 
biological  fact  of  the  crossing  of  races  is  in  itself  not 
bad ;  in  fact  the  result  is  often  beneficial,  depending  upon 
the  races.  The  crossing  of  the  black  and  the  white  offers 
peculiar  problems,  because  of  the  gulf  between  the  races 
and  the  difficulties  of  inheritance  to  be  encountered.  Other 
features  enter  into  the  question,  such  as  the  ostracism  of 


50  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

the  descendants  of  the  union  of  both  races.  This  is  es- 
pecially noticeable  in  the  union  of  the  yellow  and  the 
white,  and  of  the  white  and  the  brown. 

Defectives. — In  the  study  of  defectives,  such  as  the  in- 
sane, feeble-minded,  epileptic,  and  deaf,  heredity  must  be 
considered.  Investigations  show  that  most  of  these  defects 
are  inherited  as  recessive  characters,  but  there  is  still 
doubt  in  regard  to  some,  especially  feeble-mindedness, 
and  some  minor  defects  are  known  to  be  dominant.  When 
one  defective  person  mates  with  a  normal  person,  the 
effect  is  not  so  bad;  but  when  two  defectives  mate,  the 
inheritance  is  cumulative  and  the  effect  upon  society  is 
demoralizing.  We  have  recognized  the  seriousness  of  the 
problem  in  our  segregation  of  the  insane,  but  have  not 
yet  recognized  it  in  regard  to  the  much  more  serious  prob- 
lem of  feeble-mindedness. 

Poverty  and  Crime. — Neither  poverty  nor  crime  as  a 
condition  is  hereditary,  but  they  are  both  affected  by 
inheritance.  Both  of  these  great  problems  are  due  more 
to  environment  than  to  heredity,  but  some  of  the  defective 
tendencies  which  contribute  to  the  making  of  these  prob- 
lems are  inherited,  such  as  defective  physical,  mental,  and 
moral  qualities.  The  strong  seldom  fall  below  the  poverty 
line,  and  when  they  do  they  are  generally  able  to  rise 
again.  The  weak  are  not  so,  and  often  remain  submerged. 
It  is  the  same  in  regard  to  crime — the  strong  are  able 
to  resist  temptation  but  the  weak  fall.  The  importance 
of  inheritance  appears  through  the  inheritance  of  weak- 
nesses. 

War. — War  is  another  social  problem  where  heredity 
must  be  considered.  In  ancient  times  when  the  stronger 
races  conquered  and  exterminated  the  weaker,  it  was  ap- 
parently a  survival  of  the  \mfit.  When  we  have  universal 
conscription  and  the  slaughter  is  limited  to  those  under 
arms,  we  have  a  selection  of  the  fit  for  the  slaughter. 
Only  those  who  are  able  to  pass  the  army  medical  ex- 
aminations are  taken,  and  the  crippled,  the  diseased,  and 
the  defective  are  left  at  home  to  become  the  fathers  of 
the  next  generation.  In  small  wars  this  of  course  is  not 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  51 

serious,  for  the  armies  are  generally  filled  by  the  restless, 
and  deaths  are  few.  In  the  World  War  it  was  apparent 
to  all,  and  many  nations,  particularly  France,  got  alarmed. 
We  did  not  feel  it  much  in  America,  because  of  our  brief 
participation  and  small  loss,  but  practically  all  the  Euro- 
pean nations  did  feel  it.  Then  those  who  are  not  fighting 
are  often  injured  in  the  struggle  by  poor  food  and  hard 
work,  and  so  are  devitalized.  Even  the  keeping  of  stand- 
ing armies  affects  the  problem,  for  it  keeps  a  large  number 
of  physically  sound  men  from  taking  their  places  in 
society  and  becoming  the  fathers  of  the  next  generation. 

Eugenics. — Eugenics  is  the  study  of  race  improvement, 
or  the  science  of  being  well  born.  As  a  systematic  study 
it  dates  from  Sir  Francis  Galton.  Galton  was,  however, 
not  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  need  of  race  improve- 
ment, or  even  the  first  who  wrote  upon  it.  Plato  advo- 
cated it  and  Sparta  practiced  it  long  before  the  time  of 
Plato,  and  many  other  writers  touched  it  at  various  other 
times.  The  study  itself  is  based  upon  biology  as  a  founda- 
tion, and  borrows  from  sociology  the  material  to  erect  its 
structure;  and  is  thus  a  combination  of  both  of  these 
sciences.  Because  biologists  have  made  the  most  of  its 
investigations,  it  has  attracted  more  biologists  to  its  study 
than  sociologists,  but  it  is  of  use  to  both  sciences  and 
dependent  upon  both.  We  have  not  the  time  here  to  go 
into  any  sort  of  detailed  study  of  eugenics,  and  if  we  did 
it  would  not  be  opportune,  for  the  same  problems  occur 
in  other  places  in  this  work,  and  require  to  a  great  extent 
the  same  methods  of  treatment. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  eugenics  is  often  divided 
into  two  parts:  positive  and  negative  eugenics.  The 
former  has  for  its  aim  the  building  up  of  a  superior  race 
by  means  of  the  mating  of  the  most  fit,  or  of  increasing 
the  number  of  offspring  of  those  most  likely  to  produce 
the  best  descendants.  Negative  eugenics  has  as  its  object 
the  limitation  of  the  progeny  of  the  unfit,  either  by  the 
segregation  or  sterilization  of  those  classes  or  individuals 
who  are  unfit,  and  are  thus  liable  to  produce  descend- 
ants who  will  be  injurious  to  society. 


52  Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics 

Positive  eugenics  is,  of  course,  more  or  less  visionary 
and  Utopian.  It  does  not  sufficiently  take  into  considera- 
tion— or  possibly  cannot — the  phenomenon  of  sexual  se- 
lection, and  the  fact  that  in  civilizations  advanced  suffi- 
ciently to  appreciate  its  need,  mating  is  recognized  as  a 
personal  matter.  Positive  eugenics  is  upheld  by  the  more 
or  less  generally  accepted  principle  of  the  attraction  of 
opposites,  such  as  the  attraction  of  the  tall  for  the  short, 
the  fat  for  the  lean,  the  large  for  the  small,  the  quick 
for  the  slow,  the  nervous  for  the  phlegmatic,  and  the 
steady  for  the  excitable.  This  helps  to  protect  us  against 
degeneracy,  but  still  works  against  the  selection  of  a 
superior  type.  If  we  did  match  the  highly  superior,  we 
would  still  have  the  inferior  grades  to  deal  with  unless 
we  prevented  their  propagating  by  segregation,  steriliza- 
tion, or  asphyxiation.  Any  attempt  to  build  society  upon 
any  principle  which  does  not  take  into  consideration  such 
vital  questions  as  personal  or  sex  attraction  is  bound  to 
prove  visionary.  Positive  eugenics  does  offer  much  by 
the  mere  stressing  of  the  seriousness  of  mating,  by  devel- 
oping a  public  sentiment  or  opinion  which  will  demand 
more  care  in  the  selecting  of  a  partner  for  life,  and  the 
rejecting  of  the  undesirable  characters.  Thus  its  chief 
value  is  educative  rather  than  compulsory. 

Negative  eugenics  aims  at  the  elimination  of  those  in- 
dividuals and  classes  which  are  undesirable,  by  prevent- 
ing their  mating.  It  advocates  such  measures  as  the 
segregation  of  the  insane,  feeble-minded,  epileptic,  and 
those  afflicted  with  incurable  diseases  which  are  either 
hereditary  or  liable  seriously  to  affect  the  next  genera- 
tion. It  advocates  such  measures  as  the  requirement  of 
medical  certificates  showing  proper  physical  condition. 
It  advocates  the  segregation  or  sterilization  of  defectives 
and  criminals,  when  they  are  definitely  known  to  be  such. 
It  thus  means  the  compulsory  elimination  of  the  unfit. 

As  soon  as  the  public  can  be  educated  to  the  need 
of  such  measures,  probably  all  of  the  suggested  measures 
and  many  others  will  be  found  sound  and  practical.  In 
this  way,  negative  eugenics  offers  a  definite  program 


Variation,  Heredity  and  Eugenics  53 

which  has  much  of  value  for  society.  It  must  be  stressed 
here  that  before  any  such  program  can  be  inaugurated, 
the  public  must  be  educated  to  its  need  and  value,  for 
enforcement  is  impossible  unless  people  really  want  the 
thing  done. 


READING  REFERENCES 

NEWMAN,  H.  H.,  Readings  in  Evolution,  Genetics  and  Eugenics. 
SCOTT,  W.  B.,  The  Theory  of  Evolution. 
CONKLIN,  EDWIN  C.,  Heredity  and  Environment. 
CASTLE,  W.  E.,  Genetics  and  Eugenics. 
POPENOE,  PAUL,  and  JOHNSON,  R.  H.,  Applied  Eugenics. 
DAVENPORT,  C.  B.,  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics. 
MORGAN,  T.  H.,  Heredity  and  Sex. 
GRANT,  MADISON,  The  Passing  of  the  Great  Race. 
STODDARD,  LOTHROP,  The  Rising  Tide  of  Color. 
CASTLE,  W.  E.,  COULTER,  J.  N.,  DAVENPORT,  C.  B.,  EAST,  E.  M., 
TOWER,  W.  L.,  Heredity  and  Eugenics. 


CHAPTER  IV 
INCREASE  OF  POPULATION 

As  nearly  as  we  are  able  to  determine,  prehistoric  man 
began  in  or  near  what  is  now  Asia  Minor;  but  we  shall 
probably  never  be  able  to  locate  the  exact  spot.  All 
we  know  is  that  the  earliest  records  and  most  careful 
investigations  indicate  man's  first  appearance  in  that 
region.  We  are  much  in  doubt,  also,  as  to  the  time 
of  his  first  appearance.  History  carries  us  back  only 
about  six  thousand  years,  but  that  is  very  short  in 
comparison  with  the  life  of  man  before  he  reached  the 
state  of  civilization  which  produced  tangible  records. 
Many  estimates  have  been  made  in  regard  to  the  probable 
age  of  man;  some  insist  that  it  has  been  only  a  few 
thousand  years,  while  others  claim  that  it  has  been 
millions  of  years  since  he  made  his  appearance.  Geology 
tells  us  that  man  was  one  of  the  latest  arrivals  and  did 
not  appear  till  late  in  the  history  of  the  earth.  Some 
scientists  have  contended  that  man  had  several  origins, 
but  now  it  has  become  the  accepted  theory  that  man  had 
only  one  beginning — the  monogenesis  theory  prevailing 
over  the  polygenesis. 

From  this  one  place  of  origin  man  has  scattered  over 
the  whole  face  of  the  globe.  Students  of  the  subject 
have  attempted  to  work  out  definite  stages  of  evolution 
from  lower  species,  but  in  all  of  these  schemes  there  have 
been  necessarily  great  gaps,  and  the  authors  have  had  to 
weave  in  so  much  theory  and  supposition  that  they  have 
failed  to  establish  these  stages.  Such  a  far-reaching  study, 
interesting  though  it  is,  falls  outside  the  realm  of  soci- 
ology, and  pertains  instead  to  her  sister  science,  anthro- 
pology. Sociology  finds  man  upon  the  earth,  and  begins 
with  the  study  of  his  social  life.  Man  began  with  a  small 

54 


Increase  of  Population  55 

group,  and  from  this  has  increased  numerically  to  the 
present  enormous  population.  Necessarily  small  at  first 
and  slow  of  growth,  like  a  snowball  it  has  grown  more 
and  more  rapidly  as  the  group  has  become  larger  and 
stronger.  The  present  indications  are  that  mankind  has 
by  no  means  stopped  or  even  seriously  checked  his  rate 
of  increase,  except  in  a  few  countries.  In  fact,  man  has 
increased  in  number  much  more  rapidly  since  he  has 
become  civilized  than  before.  Living  has  become  easier 
and  life  more  secure.  The  dangers  have  decreased  while 
the  means  of  subsistence  have  increased.  Improvements 
and  inventions  have  allowed  more  people  to  live  in  a 
given  space  than  formerly.  Man's  increase  at  first  was 
slow  and  many  tribes  and  even  races  perished  entirely; 
for  long  periods  of  time  he  was  able  to  do  little  more 
than  hold  his  own.  The  races  given  by  nature  an  ad- 
vantage over  other  races  have  increased.  The  pressure 
of  population  is  keenly  felt  in  some  countries,  especially 
China,  India,  Japan  and  Italy.  This  is  not  a  new  phe- 
nomenon; on  the  contrary  it  is  older  than  civilization 
itself.  Pressure  of  population  was  the  cause  of  man's 
scattering  out  over  the  earth;  but  now  that  all  the  earth 
has  been  explored  and  all  the  best  land  taken,  we  often 
wonder  if  a  time  will  come  when  the  population  will  be 
too  great  for  the  earth  to  support.  This  is  not  now  caus- 
ing people  to  worry  so  much  as  it  did  one  hundred  years 
ago,  for  in  some  countries  the  pressure  is  not  so  great 
as  it  was  then,  because  of  relief  given  by  increase  in 
production  and  improvement  in  commerce.  « 

The  Malthusian  Theory  of  Population. — Over  one  hun- 
dred years  ago  Malthus  published  his  famous  work  Essay 
on  Population,  which  went  through  several  editions  and 
has  been  handed  down  since  that  time  as  a  classic.  In 
this  book  Malthus  declared  that  population  tends  to  in- 
crease faster  than  the  means  of  subsistence.  At  first  he 
tried  to  prove  this  by  showing  that  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence increased  in  arithmetical  proportion,  while 
population  increased  in  geometrical  proportion;  but  he 
later  abandoned  such  attempts.  Malthus  stated  that  there 


56  Increase  of  Population 

were  two  methods  of  checking  or  holding  population 
down  to  the  food  supply:  (1)  positive,  as  war,  famine, 
disease,  vice,  and  poverty,  and  (2)  negative  or  artificial 
checks,  such  as  late  marriages,  celibacy,  and  control  of 
the  birth  rate.  He  attempted  to  prove  that  if  we  did 
not  exercise  the  latter,  the  former  would  operate.  Mal- 
thus  believed  that  poverty  was  the  direct  result  of  this 
increase  of  population,  as  it  created  a  surplus  of  workers, 
who  kept  wages  down;  he  went  so  far  as  to  cite  this  as 
the  chief  cause  of  all  misery  and  wretchedness. 

With  this  conclusion  we  cannot,  of  course,  agree ;  indeed 
his  general  theory  is  not  proved  by  modern  conditions. 
The  principle  may  have  worked  among  primitive  peoples 
and  may  be  true  when  applied  to  a  stationary,  unprogres- 
sive  population,  but  it  does  not  apply  to  modern  society. 
Malthus  was  unable  to  foresee  the  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries of  modern  times  which  have  increased  the  food 
supply,  with  reapers,  binders,  plows,  corn  planters,  and 
potato  diggers,  modern  methods  of  preserving  and  can- 
ning vegetables  and  fruits,  and  intensive  methods  of 
agriculture.  Progress  in  these  things  has  more  than  kept 
pace  with  the  increase  in  population,  for  in  reality  a  con- 
stantly decreasing  percentage  of  our  population  has  been 
able  to  produce  the  world's  food  supply.  Then,  too, 
Malthus  did  not  take  into  consideration  the  ability  of 
man  to  co-operate  to  greater  advantage  as  population 
became  denser.  As  population  has  increased,  man  has  been 
able  to  make  more  economical  divisions  of  labor,  using 
more  efficient  methods  of  applying  labor,  and  through 
new  inventions  and  discoveries  to  bring  about  greater  pro- 
duction. Thus  man  is  constantly  able  to  produce  more 
in  shorter  periods  of  time,  and  the  working  day  for  the 
laboring  man  is  steadily  being  shortened  throughout  the 
entire  world,  especially  in  the  more  advanced  and  thickly 
populated  countries. 

Other  theories  of  population  have  been  postulated, 
among  which  is  that  of  Dumont,  the  French  economist 
and  sociologist,  who  suggests  that  society  is  like  a  sponge 
in  that  it  will  allow  as  large  a  population  as  industry 


Increase  of  Population  57 

can  care  for;  that  if  a  country  has  opportunities,  like 
those  of  Argentine,  Canada,  or  Alaska,  the  population 
will  increase,  but  if  there  are  no  opportunities  the  popu- 
lation will  not  increase.  Although  history  does  not  prove 
this  theory,  it  is  very  interesting  and  somewhat  plausible. 
A  new  country  with  opportunities  will  attract  immigra- 
tion, but  the  birth  rate  in  that  country  may  not  increase ; 
it  often  does  not.  Therefore  it  is  very  difficult  to 
formulate  any  hard  and  fast  theory  of  population.  One 
thing  we  do  know  is  that  population  is  steadily  increas- 
ing, and  for  the  past  hundred  years,  at  least,  means  of 
subsistence  have  more  than  kept  pace  with  this  increase. 
While  we  can  expect  the  population  of  the  earth  steadily 
to  become  denser  there  is  as  yet  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances no  immediate  danger  of  starvation,  and  while  con- 
ditions in  China,  Russia  and  India  seem  to  disprove  this 
statement,  science  will  eventually  solve  the  problems  of 
food  supply  in  all  countries. 

Increase  in  Population  of  Some  of  the  Leading  Mod- 
ern Nations. — The  following  table  will  show  how  some  of 
the  modern  nations  have  increased  in  population : 1 

%  Increase  %  Increase 

Country—  1800-1900  Country—  1800-1900 

United  States    1,331.6  Sweden  118.6 

Belgium    204.3  Italy  88.4 

Denmark 163.4  Portugal   85.1 

United  Kingdom 155.9  Switzerland   84.1 

Norway   154.6  Austria    81.6 

Germany   143.2  Spain  75.6 

Holland 143.1  France    42.5 

From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the 
nations  showing  the  greatest  increase  are  the  ones  which 
are  prosperous  or  well  situated  geographically;  yet  we 
can  derive  no  universal  law  from  these  data,  for  France 
has  been  a  very  prosperous  nation,  she  enjoys  a  splendid 
form  of  government,  and  the  common  people  are  happy. 
Yet  France,  even  before  the  war,  was  hardly  holding  her 
own  in  population. 

1A  Century  of  Population  in  the  United  States,  1790-1900,  by 
Census  Bureau,  p.  85. 


58  Increase  of  Population 

A  population  can  increase  by  a  surplus  of  births  over 
deaths  and  by  immigration,  but  a  high  birth  rate  does 
not  necessarily  mean  an  increase  in  population;  on  the 
contrary,  some  of  the  countries  which  are  at  the  top  of 
the  list  above  have  a  birth  rate  low  in  comparison  with 
that  of  many  near  the  foot,  as  we  may  see  by  the  follow- 
ing table: 


BIRTH  AND  DEATH  RATES  PER  1000  TOTAL 
POPULATION,  19002 

Excess  Births 
Country  Birth  Rate  Death  Bate  over  Deaths 

Norway    30.7  15.8  14.3 

Germany    35.6  22.1  13.5 

Denmark    29.8  16.9  12.9 

Hungary    39.3  26.9  12.4 

Scotland   29.6  18.5  11.1 

England  and  Wales..     28.7  18.2  10.5 

Sweden 26.9  16.8  10.1 

United  Kingdom 28.2  18.4  9.8 

Belgium 28.9  19.3  9.6 

Italy    32.9  23.7  9.2 

Spain   34.4  29.4  5.0 

Ireland 22.7  19.6  3.1 

France '  21.4  21.9  .5 

Switzerland    19.3  —.5 

So  when  it  comes  to  the  question  of  natural  increase,  it 
is  the  final  product  or  excess  of  births  over  deaths  that 
must  be  considered.  Then,  too,  for  each  individual 
country  other  factors  enter  in,  particularly  whether  there 
is  emigration  or  immigration. 

In  the  United  States  few  states  have  kept  vital  records 
for  any  length  of  time,  so  we  cannot  compare  the  United 
States  with  the  countries  listed  above.3  Even  if  there  were 
available  figures,  comparison  between  our  country  and 
Europe  would  not  be  fair,  for  we  have  received  hundreds 

2  Bailey,  Modern  Social  Conditions,  pp.  97  and  214. 

•We  are  now  rapidly  learning  the  value  of  vital  records  and  are 
gathering  them.  In  1919  twenty-two  states  kept  birth  statistics  and 
in  these  the  birth  rate  was  22.3;  in  the  same  year  thirty-seven  states 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  kept  death  statistics  and  in  these  states 
the  death  rate  was  12.8. 


Increase  of  Population  59 

of  thousands  of  European  immigrants,  the  majority  of 
whom  have  been  in  the  prime  of  life.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  of  these  immigrants  have  returned  later  to 
Europe  to  die  in  their  native  lands. 

If  we  compare  the  birth  rates  with  those  of  several 
decades  ago,  we  notice  an  almost  universal  decline, 
especially  with  the  more  advanced  nations.  The  death 
rate  shows  a  still  greater  decline.  Therefore,  the  in- 
crease in  population  is  the  result,  not  of  an  increasing 
birth  rate,  but  of  this  decline  in  the  death  rate,  which  is 
brought  about  by  better  sanitation,  increased  medical 
knowledge,  especially  among  the  masses,  prevention  of 
industrial  accidents,  prevention  of  disease  through 
quarantine,  vaccination  and  anti-toxins,  and  the  discovery 
of  cures  of  diseases.  The  establishment  of  bureaus  of 
medical  research;  social  insurance  systems;  visiting 
nurses ;  proper  building  codes ;  the  dissemination  of  health 
information;  shorter  hours;  more  healthful  working  con- 
ditions; the  cleaning  up  of  streets  and  alleys;  food  in- 
spection— these  and  a  thousand  other  factors  have  helped 
to  lower  the  death  rate;  and  we  can  look  for  still  greater 
progress  in  this  line.  As  sanitation  and  hygiene  increase 
the  death  rate  goes  down. 

We  note  also  that  the  industrial  nations  of  the  world 
are  increasing  in  population  because  they  furnish  work 
for  their  people  and  hence  check  emigration  as  well  as 
tempt  immigration.  The  industrial  development  of  the 
United  States  is  largely,  if  not  almost  wholly,  responsible 
for  the  modern  immigration  to  this  country.  After 
Germany  developed  industrially  she  kept  her  people  at 
home ;  the  same  is  true  of  Norway  and  Sweden. 

The  recent  "World  "War  has  so  greatly  changed  indus- 
trial and  living  conditions  in  every  country,  that  the 
sociologist  of  to-morrow  will  have  to  prepare  an  entirely 
new  mass  of  statistics. 

The  Increase  of  Population  in  the  United  States. — In 
order  to  discuss  this  subject  properly  we  must  take  a 
glance  at  the  population  statistics  for  the  United  States 
(continental)  : 


Increase  of  Population 


Tear 

Population 

%Inc. 

Tear 

Population 

%Inc. 

1790 

3,929,214 

1860 

31,443,321 

35.6 

1800 

5,308,483 

35.1 

1870 

38,558,371 

26.6 

1810 

7,239,881 

36.4 

1880 

50,155,783 

26.0 

1820 

9,638,453 

33.1 

1890 

62,947,714 

24.9 

1830 

12,866,020 

33.5 

1900 

75,994,575 

20.7 

1840 

17,069,453 

32.7 

1910 

91,972,266 

21.0 

1850 

23,191,876 

35.9 

1920 

105,708,771 

14.9 

These  figures  show  that  there  has  been  a  steady  de- 
crease in  the  percentage  of  increase  since  1850,  and  that 
while  the  increase  is  still  considerable  it  is  by  no  means 
so  rapid  as  formerly.  This  is  not  owing  to  immigration, 
because  since  1880  we  have  received  the  majority  of  our 
immigrants ;  whereas  in  our  early  history  when  the  increase 
was  the  most  rapid  we  were  receiving  very  few  immi- 
grants. During  the  decades  when  we  were  receiving  the 
most  immigrants  we  increased  in  population  the  least. 
Some  authorities  indeed  go  so  far  as  to  declare  that  immi- 
gration has  checked  instead  of  increased  our  population. 
On  the  face  of  it,  it  seems  plausible,  but  if  we  examined 
all  the  facts  we  probably  should  not  find  this  statement 
true.  Since  accurate  records  of  births  and  deaths  are 
kept  in  only  a  few  of  the  American  states  we  are  not  able 
to  obtain  very  reliable  statistics. 

In  Massachusetts  the  birth  rate  among  foreign  born  has 
been  about  three  times  that  of  the  native  born.  But  these 
statistics  are  misleading,  for  the  foreign  born  do  not  come 
here  as  a  rule  till  they  reach  the  prime  of  life  or  at  least 
the  child-bearing  age;  then,  too,  many  return  to  Europe 
after  they  have  passed  that  period ;  as  a  consequence  the 
foreign  born  have  a  much  higher  birth  rate.  And  for 
the  same  reason  the  death  rate  of  native  born  is  higher 
than  that  of  foreign  born,  although  this  difference  is 
slight.  But  Massachusetts  is  not  an  average  state;  con- 
ditions are  peculiar  in  that  the  most  vigorous  part  of  the 
native  population  have  moved  westward,  especially  the 
men,  thus  leaving  the  less  energetic  at  home,  and  in  addi- 
tion causing  an  unequal  distribution  of  the  sexes.  Then 
too  the  immigrant  class  is  cooped  up  to  a  great  extent 
in  the  factory  towns  like  Fall  River,  New  Bedford  and 


Increase  of  Population  61 

Lawrence  under  very  bad  conditions,  inviting  thereby 
low  standards  of  living  and  high  birth  rates.  On  the 
other  hand  prices  are  high  and  wages  low  in  New 
England;  so  the  native  with  his  high  ideals  is  compelled 
to  postpone  marriage  and  keep  down  the  number  of  chil- 
dren if  he  wishes  to  maintain  his  standard  of  living. 
The  average  size  of  the  family  has  decreased  in  the 
United  States,  being  5.6  in  1850,  5.3  in  1860,  5.1  in  1870, 
5  in  1880,  4.9  in  1890,  4.7  in  1900,  4.5  in  1910  and  4.3  in 
1920.  Among  the  native  whites  the  decline  has  been  still 
greater,  and  in  some  sections  of  New  England  no  gain 
is  shown.  For  separate  states  Nevada  is  lowest  with  3.5 
followed  by  California  with  3.8  and  Oregon  with  3.9. 
Southern  states  lead  in  size,  North  Carolina  standing  at 
the  top  with  5.  This  decrease  has  occasioned  some  people 
mucii  alarm.  The  causes  for  the  decrease  in  birth  rate 
are  many,  some  of  the  most  prominent  being  the  following : 

1.  The    Constantly   Advancing   Standard   of   Living. — 
People  are  demanding  more.    Things  which  they  formerly 
looked  upon  as  luxuries  they  now  consider  necessities, 
such  as  bath  rooms,  telephones,  and  electric  lights.  Finer 
clothing,  a  greater  variety  of  food,  better  houses,  and 
more  comforts  are  demanded.    Rather  than  sacrifice  these 
things,  people  limit  the  number  of  children.     Then,  too, 
greater  stress  is  now  put  upon  the  careful  rearing  of 
children  and  giving  them  proper  advantages,  than  upon 
bringing  them  into  the  world.    Instead  of  being  alarming, 
this  factor  is  conducive  to  a  higher  civilization. 

2.  The  Constantly  Increasing  Cost  of  Living. — The  in- 
crease in  prices,  especially  of  foodstuffs,  rent,  and  cloth- 
ing, resulting  from  the  comparative  decrease  of  land  for 
producing  these  commodities  and  the  increasing  demand 
for  them,  is  another  cause  of  small  families.    Wages  have 
also  risen,  but  it  is  an  economic  fact  that  wages  are  slower 
to  advance  than  prices.     As  we  shall  see  when  we  con- 
sider immigration,  wages  have  been  kept  down  by  the 
competition  of  the  immigrant  with  the  native  laborer. 
This  cause,  while  regrettable,  is  hard  to  prevent.     The 
World  War  has  recently  complicated  this  situation  still 


62  Increase  of  Population 

more  by  effecting  an  abnormal  increase  in  prices,  as  a 
result  of  the  tremendous  demand.  In  some  industries 
this  increase  has  been  more  than  offset  by  corresponding 
increases  in  wages. 

3.  Selfishness,  or  the  Refusal  to  Have  Children. — This 
may  result  from  an  unwillingness  to  sacrifice  for  them, 
unwillingness   to  undergo   the   discomfort   and   pain   of 
bringing  them  into  the  world,   or   the  unwillingness  to 
substitute  for  pleasures  already  secured  the  unknown 
satisfactions  of  parenthood.    This  is  especially  true  of  the 
rich,  who  are  loath  to  give  up  participation  in  social 
activities,  or  to  spare  the  time  which  parenthood  requires. 
The  following  table  by  Bertillon,  giving  the  number  of 
births  per  thousand  among  the  various  economic  classes 
of  the  four  largest  European  cities,4  illustrates  the  well 
known  fact  that  the  poor  have  more  children  than  the 
rich. 

BIRTHS  PER  1,000  WOMEN  15-50  YEARS  OF  AGE 

Paris  Berlin  Vienna  London 

Very  poor 108  157  200  147 

Poor   95  129  104  140 

Comfortable    72  114  155  107 

Very  Comfortable    65  96  153  107 

Rich   53  63  107  87 

Very  Rich   34  47                   71  63 

Total 80  102  153  109 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  very  poor  have  about  three 
times  as  many  children  as  the  very  rich.  As  the  eco- 
nomic prosperity  of  a  country  increases  we  find  a  decline 
in  the  birth  rate.  This  is  a  condition  much  to  be  deplored, 
for  it  seems  unfortunate  that  those  who  can  afford  to 
have  many  children  will  not  have  them,  while  those  who 
are  not  able  to  support  them  have  the  large  families.5 

4.  Education,   That   Is,   Higher   Education. — With   in- 

4  Quoted  by  Bailey,  Modern  Social  Conditions,  p.  110. 

8 ' '  In  a  fashionable  district  near  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City, 
in  1921  the  birth  rate  was  seven  per  1000  population  as  compared 
with  twenty-five  per  1000  for  the  rest  of  Manhattan." — New  York 
Times,  Jan.  22,  1922. 


Increase  of  Population  63 

crease  in  culture  and  the  rise  in  civilization,  more  time 
is  spent  in  preparation  for  one's  life  work.  If  one  is 
fitting  himself  for  a  professional  calling,  he  must  spend 
four  years  in  high  school,  and  for  many  professions, 
four  years  in  college,  and  three  or  four  years  in  profes- 
sional school.  If  he  enters  high  school  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  and  goes  continuously  (which  does  not  always 
happen),  he  is  at  least  twenty-five  upon  the  completion 
of  this  preparation;  then  he  must  often  work  several 
years  before  he  is  able  to  earn  enough  or  to  attain  suffi- 
cient professional  success  to  warrant  marriage.  So  he 
is  close  to  thirty  before  he  can  marry  at  all.  If  he 
marries  an  educated  woman  she  is  nearly  as  old.  This 
is  especially  true  if  during  his  school  days  he  falls  in 
love  with  a  school  mate  and  she  waits  till  he  has  com- 
pleted his  preparation.  It  is  only  natural  then  that  their 
family  should  be  smaller  than  the  family  of  the  unedu- 
cated man  who  marries  at  twenty-one  or  two  a  girl  of 
eighteen  or  nineteen.  Education  of  women  has  had  a 
greater  effect  upon  the  birth  rate  than  education  of  men, 
for  it  has  made  woman  less  dependent  upon  marriage; 
she  has  become  able  to  make  her  own  way,  and  her 
education  has  caused  her  to  be  more  discriminating  in 
her  choice  of  a  husband.  While  this  has  tended  to  elevate 
man  and  has  compelled  him  to  live  a  cleaner  and  more 
wholesome  life,  it  has  restricted  marriage.  In  the  past 
woman  was  either  a  drudge  or  an  ornament,  a  kind  of 
social  barometer,  reflecting  man's  economic  position.  If 
he  were  rich  she  did  not  have  to  work,  but  if  he  were 
poor  she  had  to  do  so.  However,  society  is  not  yet  adjusted 
to  this  situation.  Because  of  these  conditions  woman 
hesitates  more  about  marriage,  and,  once  married,  hesi- 
tates to  settle  back  into  woman's  former  position  in  the 
home;  hence  she  is  more  loath  to  begin  raising  a  family, 
or  to  have  a  large  one. 

5.  Vice. — Unfortunately  many  who  desire  children  can- 
not have  them,  and  it  is  claimed  that  at  least  one-half 
of  these  cases  are  owing  to  immorality.  Sexual  diseases, 
as  we  shall  see  later  when  we  take  up  the  subject  of 


64  Increase  of  Population 

immorality,  make  child-birth  either  dangerous  or  impos- 
sible. This  is  one  of  the  leading  reasons  why  the  birth 
rate  in  France  is  no  higher  than  it  is,  and  also  why  so 
many  of  the  rich  in  all  countries  do  not  have  children. 
While  comparatively  few  women  have  disease  upon  mar- 
riage, it  is  only  a  question  of  time  until  they  are  affected, 
if  the  men  they  marry  are  diseased.  Many  one-child 
families  result  from  vice,  disease  preventing  further  con- 
ception. We  can  expect  this  cause  to  operate  less  in  the 
future,  for  as  a  problem  the  social  evil  is  becoming 
rapidly  less  important ;  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  until 
it  will  be  either  stamped  out  or  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
In  old  days  when  the  bearing  of  children  was  impossible, 
the  women  were  called  "barren"  and  could  be  divorced. 
Now  that  we  know  one  of  the  chief  causes,  we  hear  less 
of  "barrenness."  While  some  women  are  physically 
unable  to  have  children,  far  more  could  have  them  if 
their  husbands  had  lived  clean  lives. 

6.  Greater  Knowledge  of  Birth  Control. — Fomerly  birth 
control  was  frowned  upon  as  unsocial  and  irreligious, 
and  made  illegal  by  statute.  Public  opinion  is  support- 
ing these  ideas  and  laws  less  and  less.  Heretofore 
churches  thundered  against  birth  control,  but  now  they 
oppose  it  less.  A  knowledge  of  conditions  among  the 
poor  has  brought  about  this  changed  attitude.  As  people 
become  educated  they  acquire  a  more  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  reproduction,  and  as  a  result  fewer  children 
are  born.  Whether  for  the  best  interests  of  our  country 
or  not,  wre  can  expect  this  tendency  to  increase  as  our 
country  continues  to  grow  in  prosperity  and  enlighten- 
ment. 

On  the  whole  we  can  look  for  a  constantly  declining 
birth  rate;  but  whether  this  ever  reaches  the  point  of 
race  suicide  is  extremely  doubtful. 

Decrease  in  Death  Rate. — Along  with  a  decrease  in 
birth  rate  we  have  noticed  a  steady  decline  in  the  death 
rate  among  civilized  nations;  the  greater  the  advance  in 
civilization,  the  greater  the  decrease.  In  the  United  States 
the  death  rate  was  reduced  more  than  one-fourth  between 


Increase  of  Population  65 

1900  and  1920.  The  steady  increase  in  population  is  the 
result  of  the  decrease  in  death  rate.  This  decline  is  owing 
to  many  causes,  the  chief  of  which  are  probably  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  Increased   Medical   Knowledge. — Medical   science   is 
constantly  finding  cures  for  diseases  which  formerly  were 
considered  incurable,  e.g.,  yellow  fever,  spotted  fever  and 
cholera;   and   it   is  making   other   diseases  which   were 
ranked  as  dangerous  hardly  serious  at  all — such  as  small- 
pox,  which,    formerly  considered   a   scourge,   now  is   no 
more  to  be  dreaded  than  a  bad  cold.     Tuberculosis  is 
slowly    yielding    to     preventive    measures.       Preventive 
means,  in  the  shape  of  anti-toxins,  are  now  used  against 
such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria.    Th£  here- 
tofore  unknown   causes   of  many   diseases   whiciP  have 
existed  for  a  long  time,  like  the  hook-worm  disease,  have 
been  discovered.    Better  methods  of  treating  the  so-called 
' '  child  diseases, ' '  such  as  measles,  whooping  cough,  croup, 
etc.,  have  been  found  and  their  fatality  has  been  reduced.  Jfc 
Medical  science  has  not  only  greatly  reduced  the  death 
rate  but  may  also  be  expected  to  effect  still  greater  im- 
provement in  this  respect.    Joined  with  these  discoveries 

is  the  greater  accessibility  of  these  cures  and  treatments 
to  the  mass  of  our  population  through  better  hospital 
facilities.  With  the  erection  of  city  hospitals  and  privately 
endowed  institutions,  practically  no  one  in  the  cities  at 
least  need  go  without  medical  treatment  when  it  is  needed, 
even  though  funds  are  lacking.  Increased  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  the  public  of  the  curability  of  disease,  and 
stricter  requirements  for  entrance  into  the  medical  pro- 
fession have  contributed  to  the  decrease  in  the  death  rate 
from  disease.  People  do  not  fear  hospitals  as  they  once 
did,  and  they  trust  doctors  more  than  formerly;  so  with 
the  greater  means  at  hand  they  make  use  in  daily  life 
of  medical  knowledge  and  skill. 

2.  Improved  Sanitation  and  Hygiene. — Practical  knowl- 
edge of  hygiene  has  been  spread  through  the  country  by 
instruction  in  our  schools,  special  educational  campaigns, 
popular  magazines,  public  libraries,  and  other  means  of 


66  Increase  of  Population 

disseminating  information.  Visiting  nurses  are  going 
from  house  to  house  teaching  the  poor,  especially  the 
immigrant  poor,  how  to  live  healthier,  happier  lives,  pre- 
pare better  food,  and  prevent  germ  infection.  Our  cities 
are  enacting  and,  still  more  important,  are  enforcing  laws 
in  regard  to  sewage  and  garbage  disposal,  street  cleaning, 
food  and  milk  inspection,  pure  water,  handling  of  con- 
tagious diseases  and  other  matters  vital  to  public  health. 
Because  prevention  is  more  important  than  cure,  this 
type  of  effort  is  even  more  important  than  curative 
measures.  It  is  becoming  more  and  more  effective  and 
thus  can  be  depended  upon  for  increasingly;  greater  re- 
sults in  the  future. 

3.  Prevention    of   Industrial    Accidents. — Most    of    the 
European  countries  have  adopted  systems  of  accident  in- 
surance,   compelling   the    employers    to    compensate    for 
accidents   in   their   factories.      This   has   influenced   the 
employers  in  their  turn  to  use  the  most  modern  devices 

.for  accident  prevention.  Many  of  the  American  states 
are  taking  the  same  measures,  while  many  employers  are 
putting  in  such  improvements  voluntarily.  In  the  United 
States  it  has  been  found  that  about  35,000  workers  are 
killed  and  500,000  maimed  each  year  by  industrial  acci- 
dents, many  of  which  are  preventable.  Shorter  working 
hours  are  becoming  customary  and  as  a  result  there  are 
fewer  accidents.  We  as  a  nation  are  waking  up  to  the 
fact  that  the  loss  of  life  because  of  industrial  accidents 
is  to  a  great  extent  unnecessary,  and  are  taking  steps  to 
prevent  it. 

4.  Decrease  in  Infant  Mortality. — During  the  first  year 
the  mortality  rate  among  infants  is  greatest,  especially, 
among  the  poor  and  ignorant  classes  and  in  those  coun- 
tries  where   the   masses   are   uneducated   and   poverty- 
stricken.     In  Russia  under  normal  times  27  per  cent  of 
all  the  babies  died  before  the  end  of  the  first  year,  and 
even  in  the  registration  area  in  the  United  States  16.2 
per  cent  die  during  this  period.    We  are  now  beginning 
to  realize  the  seriousness  of  this  unnecessary  loss  of  life 
and  are  attempting  to  prevent  it  through  better  milk 


Increase  of  Population  67 

inspection,  parental  care,  instruction  of  mothers,  and  the 
spread  of  knowledge  of  hygiene  generally. 

5.  Prevention  of  War. — Before  the  World  War  we  had 
steadily  reduced  the  loss  of  life  from  war  till  we  were 
in  high  hopes  of  eliminating  entirely  mortality  from  this 
cause.  The  war  upset  all  this.  If  the  present  League 
of  Nations  succeeds  in  doing  all  that  its  advocates  expect 
of  it,  we  can  still  look  for  the  time  when  this  great  menace 
will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  world  is  sick  of  war 
and  we  can  only  hope  that  this  league  will  succeed  in 
doing  all  that  its  most  ardent  advocates  predict  of  it. 

On  the  whole,  then,  we  may  expect  population  to  keep 
on  increasing  but  at  a  less  rapid  rate  than  formerly;  we 
may  expect  a  constantly  decreasing  birth  rate  but>a  cor- 
responding, but  slightly  less,  decrease  in  the  death  rate. 
Many  estimates  have  been  made  as  to  the  population 
of  the  United  States  at  stated  dates  in  the  future,  say 
in  the  year  2000.  Estimates  for  that  year  range  from 
200,000,000  to  400,000,000.  Such  predictions  are  inac- 
curate and  worthless,  since  conditions  are  constantly 
changing  and  the  rate  of  increase  is  ever  decreasing. 
If  we  continue  to  hold  out  fewer  inducements  to  immi- 
grants, we  can  expect  immigration  to  cease  after  a  time. 
If  our  prosperity  should  fail  we  might  even  experience 
much  emigration  and  a  possible  decrease  in  population. 
Besides  as  we  exploit  our  natural  resources  and  populate 
the  country,  and  at  the  same  time  improve  education 
and  raise  our  standard  of  living,  we  may  look  for  the 
rate  of  increase  to  fall  off  rapidly.  Therefore  the  future 
is  too  uncertain  to  make  a  safe  prediction  possible.  The 
most  that  we  can  say  is,  that  if  present  conditions  con- 
tinue population  will  steadily  increase.  Likewise  when 
the  world  recovers  from  the  temporary  setback  caused 
by  the  War,  it  will  continue  to  house  and  feed  an  ever 
expanding  population. 


Increase  of  Population 


READING  REFERENCES 

ELLWOOD,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Chap. 
IX,  "Growth  of  Population." 

BAILEY,  W.  B.,  Modern  Social  Conditions.    Chaps.  Ill,  V  and  VI. 

PARMELEE,  MAURICE,  Poverty  and  Social  Progress,  Chap.  XII, 
"Growth  of  Population  and  Increase  of  Wealth." 

MALTHUS,  T.  R.,  Essay  on  Population.    Any  good  edition. 

TAUSSIG,  F.  W.,  Principles  of  Economics,  Vol.  II,  Chaps.  52  and 
53,  "Population." 

WRIGHT.  C.  D.,  Outlines  of  Practical  Sociology.  Chaps.  II  and 
III. 

WOLFE,  A.  B.,  Readings  m  Social  Problems,  Book  I. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  "Controlled  Fecundity,"  New  Republic,  Jan.  27, 
1922,  and  "Publications  of  the  American  Sociological  So- 
ciety, Vol.  XVI. 


CHAPTER  V 
HUMAN  MIGRATION 

If  the  theory  holds  good  that  man  began  with  a  single 
family  or  small  group,  he  has  gradually  migrated  until 
he  has  occupied  all  the  habitable  portions  of  the  earth. 
The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  why  he  migrated, 
how  he  did  it,  and  what  was  the  effect  upon  his  develop- 
ment. 

Man  was  forced  to  migrate  because  of  lack  of  food 
supply.  The  increase  in  numbers  made  living  more  diffi- 
cult and,  as  a  result,  some  of  the  group  had  to  leave  their 
original  home  to  seek  new  supplies  of  food.  This  caused 
the  formation  of  bands  which  would  start  out  upon  their 
wanderings  in  search  of  new  abodes.  In  all  probability 
these  bands  consisted  of  those  belonging  to  one  family, 
or  those  closely  connected  by  ties  of  kinship  or  friendship. 
Whether  they  were  the  weaker  groups  which  were  driven 
out,  or  were  bands  composed  of  energetic  individuals  who 
were  discontented  with  their  hard  lot  and  desirous  of 
bettering  it,  we  do  not  know;  in  all  probability  both 
classes  of  people  were  represented.  At  any  rate,  man 
formed  into  bands,  so  as  to  afford  greater  protection  and 
to  satisfy  his  innate  craving  for  companionship,  and 
started  out  upon  journeys  of  conquest  and  exploration. 

These  bands  naturally  followed  the  paths  of  least  re- 
sistance, going  up  or  down  river  valleys,  along  the  coast, 
around  mountain  ranges,  or  through  passes.  When  they 
came  to  places  where  the  food  supply  was  abundant  they 
would  either  settle  down  permanently,  or  remain  till 
they  were  evicted  by  another  band,  or  were  tempted  to 
seek  still  more  inviting  sources  of  food  supply.  If 
stronger  bands  forced  them  out  they  simply  continued 
their  wanderings,  unless  they  preferred  to  fight  rather 

69 


70  Human  Migration 

than  to  run.    Often,  in  that  event,  the  weaker  band  was 
exterminated  or  forced  into  slavery  by  the  stronger. 

We  have  noticed  that  the  richer  river  valleys  like  the 
Nile  valley  and  the  valley  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  were 
among  the  first  to  be  settled  and  consequently  among  the 
first  abodes  of  people  of  advanced  civilization.  Man  has 
also  moved  along  the  paths  of  the  best  sources  of  food 
supply,  whether  living  was  gained  by  direct  appropria- 
tion of  the  gifts  of  nature,  by  fishing,  by  hunting,  or 
later  by  the  domestication  of  flocks  and  herds,  with  the 
aid  of  agriculture.  In  this  way  he  spread  out  from  Asia 
Minor  in  all  directions,  going  eastward  into  what  is  now 
India,  and  then  either  around  the  Himalayas,  or  through 
the  passes  into  the  fertile  territory  of  China,  where  he 
was  stopped  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Australia  and  the 
East  Indies  were  possibly  connected  with  Asia  by  strips 
of  land  or  were  separated  only' by  narrow  bodies  of  water, 
and  thus  man  was  able  to  people  the  East  Indies,  Aus- 
tralia, New  Zealand  and  most  of  the  island  archipelagoes 
of  the  Southern  Pacific.  Further  north,  he  was  forced 
or  lured  to  cross  the  Bering  Sea,  either  on  the  ice  or  by 
means  of  rafts,  perhaps  going  from  one  to  another  of 
the  Aleutian  islands;  thus  he  came  to  America.  From 
Alaska  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  spread  over  the  two 
Americas.  Going  westward,  man  migrated  to  Africa  by 
way  of  the  isthmus  of  Suez  into  the  Nile  valley,  and 
thence  to  the  various  parts  of  Africa,  meeting  with  few 
land  barriers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sahara  Desert. 
Going  northward  he  passed  into  Europe,  either  follow- 
ing the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  or  going  down  the 
valley  of  the  Danube,  which  has  served  as  a  highway  for 
migrations'  into  Europe.  From  southern  Europe,  man 
wandered  as  far  north  as  the  climate  would  permit.  Here 
he  was  driven  backward  at  least  once  and  possibly  several 
times  by  changes  in  the  climate  which  caused  the  glaciers 
to  move  southward,  only  to  return  again  with  successive 
resumptions  of  former  climatic  conditions.  Europe  was 
peopled  also  by  migrations  from  Asia,  which  moved  in 
a  more  northerly  track,  coming  by  way  of  Siberia. 


Human  Migration  71 

Russia  and  the  Balkans  were  thus  settled  by  the  Slavic 
race.  From  Europe  migration  crossed  the  Atlantic.  The 
Norse  came  by  way  of  Iceland,  and  the  Spanish  by  way 
of  the  Azores. 

Motives  for  Migration. — The  motive  for  early  migration 
was  necessity — the  shortage  of  provisions  or  the  fear  of 
a  stronger  force.  Afterwards  other  causes  operated,  par- 
ticularly religious  persecution,  political  oppression,  the 
desire  to  evade  the  penalties  of  law,  and  economic  con- 
ditions. Religious  persecution  was  one  of  the  leading 
causes  of  the  settlement  of  America,  but  it  was  an  effec- 
tual incentive  to  migrations  long  before  that.  It  seems 
to  be  human  nature  for  those  holding  one  belief  to  try  to 
compel  others  to  accept  the  same  belief  and  to  drive  out 
or  exterminate  those  who  hold  other  beliefs.  Many  people 
have  migrated,  therefore,  for  the  sake  of  religious  free- 
dom. Government,  at  first,  was  by  means  of  the  strong 
arm;  those  who  dared  to  oppose  were  killed  or  driven 
out;  thus  there  have  always  been  those  who  were  com- 
pelled to  migrate  for  political  reasons.  Banishment, 
either  outside  of  the  political  boundaries,  or  to  some 
definite  place  such  as  a  penal  colony,  has  often  been  used 
as  a  means  of  punishment.  Then  wanderlust,  the  desire 
to  keep  moving,  has  always  been  a  strong  motive.  Re- 
ligious pilgrimages  and  the  sending  out  of  missionaries 
have  added  to  migration.  Slavery  has  dispersed  peoples, 
the  weaker  being  captured,  sold  as  slaves,  and  scattered 
throughout  the  world.  Negro  slavery  furnishes  perhaps 
the  best  example.  Greece  and  Rome  followed  this  as  a 
regular  custom,  Rome  selling  her  prisoners  of  war. 
Whenever  a  race  was  defeated  and  put  to  flight,  it  fre- 
quently scattered,  sought  safety  as  individuals,  and  hence 
was  unable  to  unite  later. 

Probably  the  greatest  motive  for  migration  to-day  is 
the  economic  one,  the  seeking  for  opportunities  to  obtain 
a  greater  return  for  one's  labor.  This  is  the  motive 
prompting  the  bulk  of  our  recent  immigrants  to  come 
to  America;  it  is  behind  the  majority  of  human  wander- 
ings to-day.  The  lure  of  gold  and  the  prospect  of  riches 


72  Human  Migration 

cause  man  to  go  to  the  most  inaccessible  regions;  to 
endure  the  tortures  of  extreme  cold  or  heat;  to  risk  the 
dangers  of  disease  and  of  wild  beasts;  to  endure  thirst, 
frost-bite,  drenching  rains,  and  all  manner  of  personal 
discomforts;  to  leave  friends  and  relatives  and  put  up 
with  loneliness  and  privation.  Commerce  has  been  fos- 
tered by  practically  all  nations;  colonies  were  sent  out 
by  Phoenicia,  Greece  and  Carthage  for  this  purpose,  and 
later  by  France,  England,  Holland,  and  Germany.  In 
fact,  the  trader  has  nearly  always  preceded  the  soldier  and 
settler,  these  being  prompted  to  follow  by  the  reports 
brought  back  by  the  traveler  who  wandered  in  search  of 
trade. 

Fugitive  peoples  have  been  driven  into  the  inaccessible 
regions  of  the  world,  those  places  which  offered  a  chance 
to  escape  pursuit  or  detection.  Ripley  calls  the  Caucasus 
the  "grave  of  peoples,  languages,  customs,  and  physical 
types."  In  such  remote  spots  people  degenerate  because 
of  the  lack  of  contact  with  others.  Then  too  they  were 
originally  inefficient,  else  they  would  not  have  become 
fugitive.  Isolation  only  added  to  this  inefficiency. 

With  primitive  man  migration  was  comparatively  easy ; 
he  did  not  have  to  worry  about  selling  his  land  or  even 
moving  his  household  furniture,  because  he  did  not  pos- 
sess any.  All  that  he  had  to  do  was  to  pick  up  and  move 
to  another  place.  So  it  was  easy  and  natural  to  acquire 
the  habit  of  wandering.  He  was  not  able  to  move  as 
rapidly  as  modern  man,  for  he  had  no  express  trains, 
steamships,  roads,  or  bridges,  and  at  first  no  draft 
animals.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  improvement  in  the  means 
of  travel,  civilized  man  has  greater  trouble  to  move  be- 
cause of  his  numerous  possessions;  moreover  he  has  less 
incentive  for  migration. 

Primitive  movements  were  not  rapid;  they  were  slow, 
leisurely  driftings  in  which  whole  tribes  or  nations  took 
part.  At  first  these  bands  were  held  together  by  family 
ties,  but  as  they  grew  vast  hordes  were  collected.  Such 
were  the  Slavic  invasions  of  Europe.  The  westward 
migration  of  the  Vandals  is  also  a  good  illustration :  they 


Human  Migration  73 

first  came  into  contact  with  Rome  when  they  struck  one 
of  the  Roman  provinces  on  the  Danube.  Here  they  set- 
tled for  some  time,  then  they  moved  on  westward,  then 
southward  into  Spain,  and  finally  across  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  into  northern  Africa,  taking  about  two  hundred 
years  for  this  whole  movement.  Later  migrations  have 
generally  taken  the  form  of  colonization  fostered  by  a 
parent  country.  Migration  of  the  present  day  is  an  in- 
dividual matter,  although  many  individuals  go  together, 
and  frequently  with  the  encouragement  of  their  govern- 
ments. 

Westward  Movement  of  Civilization. — While  civiliza- 
tion for  a  while  moved  eastward,  passing  from  Asia  Minor 
to  India  and  China,  we  find  that,  on  the  whole,  it  has 
had  a  westward  expansion,  passing  from  Babylon, 
Assyria,  and  Persia  to  Greece ;  from  Greece  to  Rome  and 
from  Rome  to  France,  Spain  and  England;  thence  to 
America,  Japan  and  China.  Not  only  civilization  but 
also  world  power  seems  to  follow  this  path.  Civilization 
in  moving  westward  has  done  so  along  the  north  tem- 
perate zone;  because  of  this  the  north  temperate  zone 
is  known  as  "the  track  of  civilization."  In  our  next 
chapter,  on  immigration  as  an  American  problem,  we 
shall  see  that  it  has  been  and  is  simply  a  part  of  this 
westward  movement  of  races  seeking  opportunities  for 
improvement,  particularly  religious  and  political  freedom, 
and  economic  betterment. 

During  the  past  few  years  Japan  has  made  wonderful 
strides  in  Western  culture  and  civilization.  By  develop- 
ing a  strong  army  and  navy  and  by  assuming  a  strong 
aggressive  attitude  she  now  occupies  a  place  of  power  in 
the  family  of  nations.  Her  power  as  a  fighting  nation 
was  not  recognized  until  she  so  quickly  and  skillfully 
defeated  the  great  Russian  Empire  in  the  JRusso-Japanese 
War.  Since  that  time  she  has  commanded  the  respect 
of  other  nations,  alliances  with  her  being  eagerly  sought. 

Japan  has  been  crowded  for  territory  to  accommodate 
her  ever-increasing  population,  and  during  the  past  few 
years  has  looked  with  envious  eyes  upon  the  sleeping 


Human  Migration 

gianf  at  her  west,  but  before  the  recent  war  she  was  not 
able  to  make  much  use  of  her  neighbor.  While  the  war 
\vas  taking  the  time  and  attention  of  other  nations,  Japan 
was  able  to  push  her  interests.  Judging  from  present 
indications  it  will  only  be  a  question  of  time  till  she 
builds  up  a  vast  power  in  the  East,  either  in  co-operation 
with  or  at  the  expense  of  China. 

China,  however,  is  waking  up;  she  is  throwing  off  the 
shackles  of  inertia  and  the  dead  weight  of  her  past,  and 
is  adopting  modern  methods  of  education,  industry,  and 
government.  She  has  now  become  a  republic  and  is  wel- 
coming occidental  ideas,  inventions,  and  civilization. 
Whether  she  will  be  able  to  build  up  a  powerful  military 
and  naval  power,  like  that  of  her  neighbor  Japan,  is  a 
question.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  East  is  soon 
to  play  an  important,  if  not  a  dominating,  role  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  Japan  by  means  of  a  "  Monroe 
Doctrine ' '  of  her  own  is  attempting  to  reap  all  the  benefit 
from  the  awakening  of  the  East,  both  commercially  and 
politically;  she  may  as  a  result  assume  the  leadership  in 
Eastern  politics.  But;  whatever  the  outcome  of  this  con- 
troversy, the  Yellow  race  must  be  reckoned  with  in  the 
future  in  the  shaping  of  world  policies. 

Many  keen  students  of  Eastern  affairs  tell  us  that 
China  is  the  future  leader  in  the  East:  that  eventually 
she  will  absorb  or  dominate  Japan  because  of  her  great 
size,  wealth  of  natural  resources,  and  the  natural  vigor 
and  vitality  of  her  population.  In  regard  to  this  time 
can  only  tell. 

Kussia,  with  her  unlimited  resources  and  endless  oppor- 
tunities, and  especially  Siberia,  is  a  land  with  a  future 
which  defies  prediction.  She  has  thrown  off  the  handicap 
of  a  reactionary  government — apparently  for  a  still  more 
handicapping  reign  of  Bolshevism — but  when  she  is  able 
to  establish  a  strong  democratic  government  out  of  the 
present  chaos,  she  is  bound  to  prosper  and  to  progress. 
The  common  people,  instead  of  being  held  down  in 
ignorance,  will  be  encouraged  and  a  higher  civilization 
will  result.  It  will  take  many  years  to  achieve  a  position 


Human  Migration  75 

of  intellectual  leadership,  but  political  leadership  is  pos- 
sible long  before  that. 

While  the  recent  World  War,  horrible  and  disastrous 
as  it  was,  did  not  sound  the  death-knell  of  European 
civilization,  it  has  set  Europe  back  decades  in  human 
progress.  But  the  present  indication  is  that  out  of  the 
ruins  there  will  emerge  a  structure  grander  than  the  one 
destroyed. 

We  in  America  cannot  bear  to  think  that  our  nation, 
sharing  the  fate  of  Greece  and  Rome,  may  in  time  fall 
into  oblivion.  Some  predict  that  we  are  even  now  fast 
rushing  towards  destruction.  Instead,  we  are  still  ascend- 
ing the  highway  of  development  and  progress.  But  we 
may  fall  by  reason  of  too  great  prosperity,  especially  with 
the  wealth  and  world  power  which  the  World  War  has 
brought  to  us.  We  may  even  in  the  course  of  time  pass 
on  the  leadership  to  Asia — not  as  a  permanent  possession, 
but  perhaps  a  possession  to  be  kept  for  a  time,  and  then 
to  be  returned  by  Asia  to  Europe.  In  this  way  civiliza- 
tion may  pass  around  the  world  and  a  second  time  come 
to  America.  This  is  not  given  as  a  prophecy,  but  merely 
as  a  suggestion  of  a  possible  continuation  of  the  west- 
ward movement  of  civilization,  which  has  persisted 
throughout  the  past.  To  the  student  of  world  politics 
this  seems  not  only  a  possibility  but  a  probability.  But 
the  future  has  too  much  in  store  and  is  too  uncertain 
to  allow  any  sort  of  definite  prediction. 

However,  as  different  nations  and  countries  rise  and 
progress  in  civilization,  new  opportunities  are  opened; 
thither  man  migrates.  These  opportunities  may  be 
religious,  political,  economic,  physical,  or  esthetic,  but 
they  draw  people  from  countries  which  offer  less  chance 
of  development.  Thus  man  is  constantly  migrating  and 
society  is  ceaselessly  in  motion.  In  our  next  chapter  we 
shall  see  how  this  migration  has  affected  our  own  country. 

READING  REFERENCES 

GRANT,  MADISON,  The  Passing  of  the  Great  Eace. 
STODDARD,  LOTHROP,  The  Rising  Tide  of  Color. 


CHAPTER  VI 
IMMIGRATION 

American  Immigration  a  Part  of  the  Movement  of 
Races. — The  immigration  problem  as  presented  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States  is  merely  a  specific  illustra- 
tion of  the  movement  of  races  previously  discussed.  It 
is  perhaps  brought  more  forcibly  to  our  attention  than 
other  illustrations  because  of  the  rapidity  of  its  develop- 
ment. We  are  all  immigrants  or  their  descendants.  It 
is  merely  a  question  of  time — a  matter  of  the  date  of 
arrival.  Whether  our  ancestors  came  before  1700,  helped 
in  the  development  of  the  colonies,  fought  the  Indians, 
and  joined  in  the  struggle  for  independence;  whether 
they  came  in  the  rush  from  Ireland  in  the  40 's,  bringing 
their  entire  possessions  wrapped  up  in  a  bandanna  hand- 
kerchief ;  or  whether  we  ourselves  landed  at  Ellis  Island — 
it  is  only  a  matter  of  a  few  generations. 

The  immigration  problem  in  America  has  had,  however, 
one  aspect  which  differs  considerably  from  the  general 
run.  The  movement  of  population  of  ancient  times 
usually  consisted  in  the  migration  of  a  whole  tribe  or 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  it  to  one  particular  region 
or  in  one  certain  direction.  America,  in  a  singular  man- 
ner, seems  to  have  been  a  magnet  which  has  drawn  human 
beings  from  all  directions,  from  all  lands;  from  the 
rugged  hills  of  Norway,  the  sunny  slopes  of  Italy,  the 
steppes  of  Russia,  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  the 
settled  districts  of  England  and  Germany.  It  has  at- 
tracted the  Oriental  as  well  as  the  Occidental;  but  in  the 
main  this  migration  to  America  has  been  in  harmony  with 
other  migrations  in  being  a  westward  movement.  America 
has  been  the  melting  pot;  into  it  the  different  cultures 
and  civilizations  of  the  earth  have  been  indiscriminately 
thrown;  they  have  been  intermingled  by  the  different 

76 


Immigration  77 

interests  at  work  in  our  country,  and  it  is  only  a  question 
of  time  till  the  mass  cools  off  and  we  can  see  what  the 
final  product  is.  Perhaps  it  is  also  only  a  question  of 
time  until  we  in  turn  pour  out  our  surplus  population 
to  less  densely  inhabited  regions.  If  so,  then  the  problem 
will  be  even  more  serious,  for  it  is  only  the  hardiest,  the 
sturdiest,  and  the  most  daring  that  migrate.  We  may 
then  object  to  emigration  much  more  strenuously  than 
we  do  now  to  immigration. 

Causes  of  Immigration. — The  motives  of  migration  to 
the  United  States  have  been  much  the  same  as  the  causes 
already  discussed,  of  migration  to  other  parts  of  the 
world.  The  leading  motives  have  been  religious,  political, 
and  economic.  Coupled  with  these  have  been  minor  mo- 
tives, such  as  the  desire  for  adventure,  for  escape  from 
military  service,  or  to  avoid  punishment  of  crime.  The 
early  settlers  of  New  England  came  largely  to  escape 
religious  persecution  and  to  be  free  to  worship  God  ac- 
cording to  the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences.  The 
same  was  true  of  the  settlers  of  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land. Virginia,  New  York,  and  Delaware  were  colonized 
by  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden,  respectively,  in  an  at- 
tempt by  each  to  build  up  political  supremacy. 

Many  immigrants  have  come  to  this  country  to  escape 
political  as  well  as  religious  persecution.  This  was  es- 
pecially true  of  the  early  German  immigrant.  The  Caro- 
linas  and  Georgia  were  settled  mainly  by  convicts  sent 
out  from  England  for  a  double  purpose — to  get  rid  of 
the  criminal  class  at  home  and  to  form  a  buffer  state 
between  Virginia  and  Spanish  Florida,  European  coun- 
tries made  a  practice  for  a  long  time,  even  after  the 
Revolution,  of  sending  their  criminals  here.  To  stop  this 
was  one  of  the  problems  confronting  our  nation  in  the 
early  years  of  its  history. 

But  the  chief  causes  of  immigration  in  recent  years 
have  been  economic — the  desire  for  greater  wealth,  the 
ability  to  earn  a  larger  wage,  and  the  opportunity  to 
enjoy  more  returns  from  one's  labor.  This  movement  has 
been  stimulated  by  advertising  on  the  part  of  steamship 


78  Immigration 

companies,  which  have  profited  from  immigration.  Our 
recent  immigrants  have  come  from  countries  that  are  less 
prosperous  than  our  own,  countries  where  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  low  wages,  high  taxes,  and  a  hard  life  in  general. 
They  hear  of  the  high  wages  to  be  obtained  in  America 
and  are  naturally  attracted  by  them.  This  is  particularly, 
true  of  the  Italian,  Greek,  and  Slavic  races. 

The  founders  of  the  United  States  as  a  nation  were 
primarily  English,  Scotch,  and  Welsh,  with  here  and  there 
a  sprinkling  of  other  nationalities,  mostly  the  remnants 
of  descendants  of  the  colonies  founded  by  other  nations 
which  tried  to  settle  North  America.  The  first  immigrants 
were  mostly  of  the  same  blood  as  the  people  who  had 
helped  to  establish  the  nation,  and  were  naturally  wel- 
comed to  our  shores  in  order  to  swell  our  scanty  popula- 
tion, and  thus  make  our  country  the  more  secure  against 
foreign  invasion,  and  to  aid  in  winning  from  the  red  man 
and  the  wild  beasts  the  great  unknown  region  west  of 
the  Alleghanies.  But  the  number  of  these  newcomers 
was  small  even  as  late  as  1840;  in  fact,  it  did  not  pass 
the  100,000  mark  till  1842.  In  that  year  immigration  took 
a  jump,  owing  to  the  potato  famine  in  Ireland  and  an 
unsuccessful  insurrection  in  Germany.  Since  that  time 
immigration  to  our  shores  has  taken  place  in  waves.  Dif- 
ferent waves  have  been  largely  made  up  of  separate 
nationalities,  one  nation  at  a  time  furnishing  the  bulk  of 
the  immigrants. 

Irish. — The  Irish  were  the  first  to  incur  the  dislike  of 
those  who  had  preceded  them.  This  feeling  was  the  result 
of  the  following  conditions:  They  were  driven  out  of 
Ireland  because  of  the  failure  of  the  potato  crops,  upon 
which  Ireland  had  depended  for  a  long  time.  Therefore 
they  brought  little  wealth;  in  fact,  the  majority  of  them 
brought  their  entire  belongings  wrapped  up  in  bandanna 
handkerchiefs.  The  clothes  that  they  wore  were  exceed- 
ingly rough;  their  manners  were  uncouth.  They  spoke 
a  dialect  which  made  conversation  with  them  almost  im- 
possible. Ireland  had  been  under  a  system  of  burdensome 
taxation,  by  which  the  farmer  was  taxed  for  every  visible 


Immigration  79 

form  of  wealth.  If  he  had  stock  he  was  taxed  for  it; 
hence  came  the  temptation  to  keep  the  pig  in  the  parlor, 
where  the  assessor  would  not  be  likely  to  find  it.  If  he 
improved  his  property  or  wore  decent  clothes,  he  was 
assumed  to  be  prosperous  and  was  taxed  accordingly. 
Hence  he  got  into  the  habit  of  concealing  his  wealth  and 
looking  as  downtrodden  and  woebegone  as  possible.  This 
habit,  of  course,  was  brought  over  by  the  Irish  immigrant. 

About  this  time  the  one  hundred  year  leases  given 
to  the  Scotch,  when  they  settled  the  northern  part  of 
Ireland,  began  to  run  out.  Although  these  settlers  had 
looked  upon  their  leases  as  perpetual  they  were  evicted 
from  their  homes;  America  was  their  only  refuge.  It 
offered  them  a  new  home,  where  they  could  be  sure  of 
the  future.  It  was  a  place  where  land  was  either  free 
or  very  cheap  and  where  labor  was  in  demand;  so  they 
migrated  in  large  numbers  from  Ireland  to  America, 
where  they  have  been  known  as  Scotch-Irish. 

The  rough-looking,  uncouth  Irish  came  mostly  to  Massa- 
chusetts. This  made  the  contrast  all  the  more  marked, 
for  Boston  and  Cambridge  prided  themselves  upon  their 
culture  and  education.  At  first  the  Irishman,  being  short 
of  funds,  was  glad  to  get  any  kind  of  work  and  was  not 
in  a  position  to  haggle  over  the  wage;  he  took  anything 
he  could  get;  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  began  to 
supplant  the  native  New  Englander  in  the  mills  and 
factories.  The  manufacturers  were  quick  to  see  that  this 
uncouth  newcomer  had  an  unusually  quick  mind  and 
readily  adapted  himself  to  new  conditions,  and  so  could 
easily  take  the  place  of  the  more  expensive  native.  He 
was  eager  to  work  and  quick  to  learn;  so  it  was  only 
a  matter  of  a  few  years  till  he  was  very  much  in  the 
majority  in  the  factories.  But  when  he  became  acquainted 
with  our  conditions  he  demanded  as  high  wages  as 
the  native  and  quickly  began  to  adopt  our  customs.  As 
a  result  the  Irish  immigrants  have  been  assimilated  with 
remarkable  rapidity. 

Nor  were  they  content  merely  to  be  quickly  assimilated ; 
they  went  on  till  they  began  to  control.  They  obtained 


80  Immigration 

positions  as  bosses  and  foremen,  and  for  these  positions 
they  showed  remarkable  ability.  Then  they  drifted  into 
politics,  and  to-day  they  are  our  political  leaders.  The 
Irish  element  has  controlled  Boston  for  years;  it  would 
be  impossible  now  to  elect  a  mayor  who  does  not  take 
this  vote  into  consideration.  In  the  same  way  the  Irish 
have  controlled  Tammany  in  New  York;  in  fact,  in  all 
our  large  cities  where  there  are  a  number  of  Irish,  they 
have  become  a  strong  political  factor.  At  times  they  have 
formed  a  dangerous  element,  yet  they  have  also  exerted 
a  good  influence  in  politics. 

Since  1820  Ireland  has  poured  one-half  of  her  popula- 
tion into  the  United  States,  4,000,000  coming  as  against 
3,300,000  coming  from  Great  Britain.  The  reason  for  this 
exodus  has  been  largely  economic ;  and  they  came  to  stay 
as  few  have  returned.  They  looked  upon  America,  when 
they  came,  as  their  future  home.  If  the  men  came  alone 
they  quickly  sent  for  their  families  or  sweethearts  to 
join  them.  In  recent  years  the  Irish  have  ceased  to  come, 
in  such  a  steady  stream.  Ireland  is  becoming  pros- 
perous with  a  change  in  the  English  policy  of  control. 
The  future  of  Ireland  is  much  more  promising  than  that 
of  England,  for  England  will  depend  to  a  great  extent 
upon  Ireland  for  her  food  supply.  So  we  cannot  expect 
to  receive  many  more  Irish;  in  fact,  Irish  immigration 
on  a  wide  scale  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  While  the  Irish- 
man brought  with  him  some  undesirable  traits,  he  also 
brought  a  genial  disposition,  the  ability  to  mingle,  quick- 
ness of  observation,  and  an  organizing  ability;  he  has 
been  a  sturdy  element  in  our  population  and  has  con- 
tributed a  large  share  to  the  prosperity  of  this  country. 

German.^The  motives  that  prompted  the  German  to 
leave  his  home  and  to  seek  a  new  one  were  different  from 
those  which  spurred  on  the  Irish.  The  German  sought 
liberty,  a  haven  from  religious  and  political  persecution. 
Germany  had  been  torn  by  many  destructive  wars,  es- 
pecially the  Thirty  Years'  War.  It  not  only  had  been 
invaded  by  France  under  Napoleon,  but  had  been  laid 
waste  by  internal  struggles.  Germany  was  then  made 


Immigration  81 

up  o£  a  number  of  independent  or  semi-independent  prin- 
cipalities. These  were  jealous  of  each  other  and  were 
constantly  quarreling.  Each  levied  its  own  set  of  duties, 
\\hich  brought  about  confusion  and  led  to  endless  dis- 
putes. In  addition,  there  was  a  struggle  between  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  Every  war  was  followed  by  relentless 
persecution  and  oppressive  taxation.  All  these  things, 
coupled  with  the  oppression  of  the  petty  tyrants,  made 
life  almost  unbearable.  So  it  is  no  wonder  that  when 
good  reports  came  of  the  freedom  and  prosperity  in 
America,  thousands  sought  to  escape  the  oppression  at 
home  by  emigrating.  Germany  had  been  terribly  overrun 
by  invading  armies,  and  many  regions,  especially  the 
Palatine,  were  almost  turned  into  deserts.  Even  if  there 
had  been  no  oppression  and  cruelty  at  home,  it  would 
have  been  hard  enough  from  an  economic  standpoint  to 
get  started  again. 

The  emigration  became  so  great  that  the  government 
grew  alarmed  and  took  measures  to  stop  it.  Laws  were 
passed,  making  emigration  more  difficult,  but  such  meas- 
ures were  in  vain.  The  Germans  left  for  America,  even 
if  they  were  compelled  to  leave  empty-handed.  Some 
even  sold  their  services  for  periods  of  from  three  to  seven 
years  to  pay  for  their  passage.  This  rush  led  to  many 
abuses.  Baggage  would  often  be  left  behind  on  the 
wharves  in  Bremen  or  Hamburg ;  ships  were  overcrowded, 
causing  much  suffering  as  well  as  sickness  and  disease. 
In  fact,  many  died  on  their  way  to  America. 

The  Germans  fared  no  worse  than  others  who  came 
about  this  time,  but  they  happened  to  be  caught  in  the 
rush.  Their  difficulties  did  not  end  upon  arrival,  for  they 
were  immediately  set  upon  by  sharpers  and  swindlers; 
being  ignorant  of  our  customs  and  language  they  were 
at  the  mercy  of  any  who  wished  to  impose  upon  them. 
Very  often  their  personal  belongings  would  be  left  in 
New  York  or  at  other  points  of  arrival.  The  abuses 
became  so  bad  that  the  United  States  government  took 
steps  to  eliminate  the  greatest  evils.  Sale  of  services  to 
pay  passage  was  abolished  in  1820;  other  abuses  were 


82  Immigration 

later  dealt  with,  such  as  overcrowding  and  poor  accom- 
modations. 

This  immigration  even  under  such  conditions  was  not 
wholly  bad,  for  it  aided  in  the  settling  up  of  our  frontier 
in  a  much  more  rapid  manner  than  otherwise  would  have 
been  possible.  This  was  especially  true  of  the  German 
settlement  of  western  Pennsylvania,  which  formed  that 
element  of  our  population  known  as  "  Pennsylvania 
Dutch."  German  immigration  kept  up  in  a  steady  stream, 
with  the  exception  of  the  period  of  the  Civil  War,  until 
the  panic  of  1873.  After  that  it  was  largely  diverted 
to  other  countries,  especially  South  America,  through  the 
strenuous  efforts  of  the  German  government,  in  order 
to  build  up  commerce  and  trade  with  the  mother  country, 
and  also  because  Germany  feared  that  she  would  lose 
control  of  her  emigrants  if  they  came  to  the  United  States. 
So  in  recent  years  we  have  received  few  Germans. 

While  the  Irish  drifted  into  our  cities,  most  of  the 
Germans  went  to  the  country.  They  did  not  stop  to  over- 
populate  the  farms  of  the  eastern  states  but  pushed  to 
the  frontier,  going  at  first  to  western  Pennsylvania  and 
later  to  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  other  western  states, 
and  especially  to  Wisconsin,  which  was  being  opened  up 
after  the  Black  Hawk  War  of  1833.  Of  the  2,069,042 
persons  in  Wisconsin  in  1900,  709,969  were  of  German 
blood.1  Wisconsin  was  especially  attractive  because  it 
offered  cheap  land  ($1.25  an  acre)  which  was  especially 
adapted  to  farming.  The  climate  was  good;  taxes  were 
low,  for  there  was  no  heavy  debt.  Only  one  year  of 
residence  was  required  for  voting.  Then,  too,  Wisconsin 
wanted  settlers  and  encouraged  immigration,  especially 
of  Germans;  to  get  them  it  advertised  for  immigrants  and 
maintained  an  agency  for  a  time  in  New  York  to  help 
direct  them  to  Wisconsin.  Minnesota  offered  equal  or 
nearly  equal  opportunities,  and  received  a  large  share 
of  the  German  immigration. 

The  Germans  were  not  so  easily  assimilated  as  the  Irish, 
being  more  stubborn  in  giving  up  their  former  habits 

1  Census  of  1920  showed  in  Wisconsin  151,000  born  in  Germany. 


Immigration  83 

and  customs,  especially  their  language.  This  was  par- 
ticularly true  if  they  settled  in  communities — a  method 
characteristic  of  the  Germans.  They  liked  their  old  cus- 
toms and  were  loath  to  give  them  up.  However,  they 
made  substantial  citizens  when  once  assimilated,  for  when 
they  did  adopt  our  customs  they  selected  our  best  ones. 
They  brought  additional  problems  to  our  civilization, 
however,  the  most  important  of  which  was  perhaps  beer 
drinking.  They  built  up  breweries  and  were  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  great  increase  in  the  consumption  of 
beer  in  the  United  States.  Economically  the  Germans 
were  very  thrifty  and  prosperous.  They  were  industrious 
and  from  an  economic  standpoint  probably  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  all  our  immigrants.  The  low  percentage  of 
illiteracy  among  them  upon  arrival  and  their  strong 
physique  also  helped  make  them  a  substantial  element  in 
our  population.  In  the  Civil  War  they  enlisted  in  large 
numbers  in  the  Union  Army,  although  they  had  been  here 
but  a  short  period  of  time.  While  the  Germans  formerly 
constituted  a  sturdy  element  in  our  population,  the  part 
that  German  immigration  will  play  hereafter  is  a  matter 
of  doubt. 

As  soon  as  the  United  States  began  to  play  an  im- 
portant role  in  the  World  War  by  furnishing  the  Entente 
Allies  with  ammunition  and  supplies,  this  country  became 
a  scene  of  operations  for  the  German  spy  system.  The 
large  German  element  in  our  population  furnished  a 
splendid  field  not  only  for  concealing  spies  sent  over  .by 
Germany,  but  also  for  recruiting  more  spies  and  sym- 
pathizers. Although  many  of  German  descent  supported 
this  movement,  the  majority  of  the  Teutonic  element  in 
our  population  was  loyal  to  this  country.  The  stigma 
from  the  disloyal  element,  however,  still  persists  and  for 
a  number  of  years  to  come  we  shall  probably  consider 
the  German  element  in  our  population  undesirable — an 
attitude  exactly  opposite  to  the  one  held  prior  to  the  war. 

French. — We  have  received  comparatively  few  immi- 
grants from  France,  especially  in  recent  years.  Early  in 
our  history  some  came  because  of  religious  persecution  j 


84  Immigration 

but  since  the  time  when  the  United  States  became  a  refuge 
for  the  oppressed,  France  has  improved  religiously  and 
politically.  The  era  of  Napoleon  and  the  French  Revolu- 
tion gave  France  liberty,  and  the  Frenchman  has  had  no 
special  reasons  for  leaving  his  country.  France  has  been 
economically  prosperous  for  many  years.  Those  French 
that  we  have  received  have  come  to  us  by  way  of  Canada, 
and  will  be  discussed  later.  Those  that  have  come  directly 
from  France  have  been  generally  highly  skilled  workers 
such  as  experienced  cooks  and  waiters,  and  members 
of  the  professional  class,  especially  instructors  and  singers. 
Whether  now  that  the  World  War  is  over  we  shall  receive 
a  larger  French  immigration  will  depend  upon  how  suc- 
cessfully France  recovers  from  the  effects  of  the  war, 
whether  she  will  be  able  to  rebuild  her  ruined  industries 
and  regain  her  foreign  trade,  and  whether  the  burden  of 
taxation  can  be  borne  successfully.  In  all  probability, 
however,  we  shall  receive  few  immigrants  from  France 
in  the  future,  for  she  has  no  excess  of  population,  her 
birth-rate  has  been  on  the  decrease,  and  she  bids  fair  to 
offer  work  for  all  her  population  at  home  for  a  long  time 
to  come. 

Scandinavian. — Under  this  head  are  included  those  im- 
migrants from  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  also  Denmark, 
for  the  Danes  belong  to  the  same  racial  stock.  This  migra- 
tion began  about  1820,  and  from  1821  till  1903  the  total 
immigration  from  these  countries  amounted  to  1,609,922. 
In  1882  it  amounted  to  105,326,  or  13.3  per  cent,  but  in 
1907  it  had  dropped  to  40,965,  or  3.9  per  cent,  and  since 
then  has  continued  to  diminish.  In  1903  the  number  was 
exceeded  by  only  three  countries,  Germany,  Ireland  and 
England,  but  since  then  it  has  been  passed  by  Austria- 
Hungary,  Italy,  and  Russia.  Formerly  the  Scandinavian 
immigration  formed  an  important  addition  to  our  popula- 
tion, but  now  it  has  become  a  minor  element  in  the  im- 
migration stream.  Among  the  Scandinavians  were  many 
sailors,  carpenters,  painters,  and  shoemakers,  but  the  ma- 
jority were  servants  and  day  laborers.  They  went  to 
Minnesota,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  North  and  South 


Immigration  85 

Dakota,  Illinois,  and  Michigan,  where  they  helped  to  set- 
tle up  new  parts  of  the  country,  especially  Minnesota  and 
the  Dakotas.  About  half  of  the  recent  arrivals  have  been 
females,  who  have  come  to  join  relatives  or  friends  or 
to  enter  domestic  service.  Scandinavians  have  brought 
with  them  on  an  average  twenty-five  dollars  in  money; 
the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  very  small,  being  only  0.7 
per  cent,  or  practically  nothing.  Although  sullen  and 
morose  in  disposition,  they  are  steady  and  hard  working. 
Because  of  their  mentality  and  education  they  learn  the 
English  language  easily  and  are  quickly  assimilated. 
They  have  taken  an  active  interest  in  politics,  generally 
on  the  side  of  good  government.  North  Dakota  was  one 
of  the  first  prohibition  states,  and  Wisconsin  has  very 
advanced  industrial  legislation.  Not  only  have  they  sent 
their  children  to  school,  but  they  have  fostered  higher 
education.  The  growth  of  the  University  of  Minnesota 
is  an  evidence  of  this.  With  the  exception  of  petty  mis- 
demeanors the  Scandinavians  are  free  from  crime  and 
pauperism. 

On  the  whole  the  Swedes  are  ranked  as  superior  to 
the  Norwegians.  Very,  few  Danes  come  to  this  country 
now,  owing  to  the  increase  in  the  past  few  years  of  the 
economic  prosperity  of  Denmark  through  the  introduc- 
tion of  co-operative  methods  of  agriculture  and  especially 
of  marketing  produce.  Sweden  is  now  passing  from  an 
agricultural  to  an  industrial  nation,  hence  there  is  a 
scarcity  of  labor  and  wages  are  high.  Her  merchant 
marine  has  increased  wonderfully  because  of  her  strategic 
natural  location.  These  factors  have  tended  to  keep  the 
Swedes  at  home  the  last  few  years.  Then,  too,  their 
government  discourages  emigration  and  endeavors  to  re- 
strict it.  Norway  is  following  Sweden  somewhat  in  this 
direction.  Moreover  we  do  not  offer  such  inducements 
to  the  Scandinavian  as  we  formerly  did;  our  cheap  land 
is  all  gone,  and  there  is  competition  with  the  Italian  and 
the  Slav,  who  have  lower  standards  of  living  and  are 
willing  to  work  for  lower  wages. 

The  Scandinavian  has  been  a  great  help  to  this  country. 


86  Immigration 

Coming  from  a  country  where  life  was  one  continuous 
struggle  with  nature,  he  was  inured  to  hard  work  and 
had  developed  a  strength  of  character  that  was  bound 
to  bring  him  to  the  front.  We  can  never  expect,  at  least 
for  some  time  to  come,  to  receive  many  more  of  this  class 
for,  after  the  war,  all  three  of  these  countries  became 
more  prosperous.  To-day  they  are  not  burdened  with 
war  debt  and  they  have  not  had  their  industries  crippled — 
except  for  the  merchant  marine  tonnage  which  was  sunk 
during  the  war — or  their  population  killed  off,  but  are  in 
a  position  to  profit  by  the  war  through  the  trade  and 
commerce  which  is  coming  to  them,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
profit  realized  during  hostilities  by  selling  supplies  to  the 
warring  nations.  As  a  consequence  there  seems  to  be  no 
motive  for  migration. 

Change  in  Immigration  from  Northern  and  Western 
to  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe. — The  greatest  change 
— and  one  which  is  to  be  regretted — has  been  in  the  na- 
tionality of  our  immigrants.  We  now  receive  very  few 
from  Ireland,  England,  Germany,  and  the  Scandinavian 
countries.  Instead  our  immigrants  come  from  Italy,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, Russia,  Greece,  Turkey,  and  the  Balkan 
states.  The  Italian  and  the  Slav  predominate.  The  danger 
arises  from  differences  in  the  customs,  habits,  education 
and  standards  of  living.  Because  of  its  effect  upon  our 
social  life,  this  change  has  caused  our  recent  alarm  over 
immigration,  and  has  made  the  immigration  problem  a 
serious  one.  The  inhabitant  of  northern  Europe  was 
accustomed  to  a  civilization  and  standard  of  living  which 
was  not  materially  different  from  our  own.  He  was  edu- 
cated— at  least  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  was  very  low 
— while  the  inhabitant  of  Italy  and  Austria-Hungary,  as 
a  result  of  generations  of  oppression  and  economic  distress, 
is  uneducated,  and  accustomed  to  different  ideas  of  life. 
This  change  in  the  source  of  immigration  to  the  United 
States  is  shown  by  the  examination  of  the  statistics  for 
the  years  1882  and  1907,  both  years  of  maximum  immi- 
gration.2 

BEllwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  1913  ed.,  pp. 
203-4, 


Immigration 


87 


Percentage 

Country —                                                  Immigrants.  of  Immigrants 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 179,423  23.8% 

Germany    250,630  31.7 

Scandinavia  105,326  13.3 

Netherlands,  France  and  Switzerland. .     27,795  3.5 

Total  northern  and  western  Europe.  71.3% 

Italy   ..: 32,159  4.1 

Austria-Hungary   29,150  3.7 

Eussia,  Balkans,  etc 22,010  2.7 

Total,  southern  and  eastern  Europe.  10.5 

All  other  countries 142,499  18.2 

Total 788,992  100.  % 

1907  Percentage 

Country —                                               Immigrants.  of  Immigrants. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 113,567  8.8% 

Scandinavia 49,965  3.9 

Germany   37,807  2.9 

Netherlands,  France  and  Switzerland. .     26,512  2.1 

Total,  northern  and  western  Europe.  17.7% 

Austria-Hungary   338,452  26.3 

Italy   285,731  22.2 

Eussia 258,943  20.1 

Greece,  Serbia,  Boumania,  etc 88,482  6.9 

Total,  southern  and  eastern  Europe.  75.5 

All  other  countries 85,890  6.8 


Total  1,285,349 


100.  % 


If  we  examine  the  immigration  statistics  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1914 — just  before  the  World  War  began 
— we  find  that  the  figures  correspond  to  those  of  1907. 

IMMIGRATION  1914 
Country —                                      Number  Immigrants    Per  Ct.  of  Total 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 73,417  6.  % 

Scandinavia    29,391  2.4 

Germany    35,734  2.9 

Netherlands,  France,  Switzerland,  etc..  25,591  2. 

Total,  northern  and  western  Europe.  13.3% 

Austria-Hungary   278,152  22.8 

Italy    283,738  23.3 

Eussia    255,660  20.9 

Greece,  Serbia,  Boumania,  etc 57,252  4.7 

Total,  southern  and  western  Europe. 

Asia   34,273 

All  other  countries 145,272 


Total 1,218,480 


71.7% 

2.8 

11.9 

180.  % 


88  Immigration 

We  have  already  considered  the  countries  from  which 
we  formerly  received  the  bulk  of  our  immigrants  and  have 
seen  that  we  must  not  expect  a  return  of  that  class  be- 
cause we  no  longer  hold  out  inducements  sufficient  to 
tempt  them  to  come.  Now  let  us  discover  why  we  attract 
the  peoples  of  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia  and  similar 
countries.  In  order  to  do  this  we  must  study  the  economic 
and  social  conditions  of  those  countries.  Such  a  study 
will  also  show  why  their  emigrants  have  not  made  the 
most  desirable  additions  to  our  country,  or  at  least  why 
they  have  not  been  wanted. 

Italian. — In  studying  the  Italian  problem  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  the  northern  and  the  southern.  North- 
ern Italy  is  mostly  agricultural,  although  the  soil  is  not 
rich,  except  in  the  river  valleys.  The  people  have  a  hard 
struggle  to  make  a  living,  but  this  very  struggle  has' 
given  them  a  hardiness  and  strength  of  character  that 
make  them  desirable  citizens  when  they  come  to  the 
United  States.  It  is  much  the  same  with  them  as  with 
the  Norwegians  and  Swedes,  although  the  racial  stock  is 
different.  Southern  Italy,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  suited 
for  agriculture.  Because  the  forests  have  been  nearly 
all  cut  off  there  is  little  rainfall.  The  hills  are  steep  and 
the  streams  short  and  rapid;  the  soil  has  been  washed 
away  by  floods  and  land-slides.  The  country  is  also  very 
unhealthful,  malaria  being  especially  prevalent,  and  be- 
cause of  this  the  people  live  on  the  hill-tops  and  have 
to  go  long  distances  to  their  work.  All  these  things  put 
together  make  farming  unprofitable,  and  the  emigrants 
from  this  district  less  valuable  as  prospective  citizens. 

The  land  system  of  Italy  is  a  great  handicap  to  the 
economic  prosperity  of  the  country.  Most  of  the  land 
is  held  by  large  estates;  a  considerable  amount  by  the 
church.  The  government  has  attempted  to  effect  a  more 
equal  distribution  by  selling  some  land  in  small  tracts, 
but  being  pressed  for  money  it  has  sold  on  hard  terms, 
giving  especially  large  discounts  for  cash.  As  the  poor 
have  no  cash  they  cannot  benefit  by  the  discount,  and 


Immigration  89 

it  does  them  little  good.  The  laws  of  inheritance  are  such 
as  to  compel  the  breaking  up  of  an  estate  into  small  parts. 
These  are  often  too  small  to  be  worked  profitably ;  conse- 
quently, they  are  absorbed  by  other  large  estates.  This 
has  brought  about  a  steady  decrease  in  the  number  of 
land  owners.  The  possessors  of  the  large  estates  turn 
them  over  to  agents,  who  rent  them  out  in  small  lots  at 
the  highest  possible  rent.  This  compels  the  renter  to  work 
the  land  for  all  that  he  can  get  out  of  it,  the  soil  deterior- 
ates and  the  farms  are  ruined.  Being  ignorant  of  the  best 
methods  of  fertilization  and  tillage  and  of  other  modern 
processes,  the  farmer  uses  the  same  old  wooden  plows 
and  clumsy  hoes  that  have  been  in  use  for  centuries;  he 
still  threshes  out  his  grain  by  hand.  It  is  impossible  to 
produce  much  per  capita,  and  because  the  productivity  of 
labor  is  low,  wages  are  correspondingly  low.  Before  the 
war  a  farm  hand  obtained  about  thirty  cents  a  day,  or 
from  fifty  to  eighty  dollars  a  year.  He  is  compelled  to 
live  in  straw  huts  along  with  his  cattle;  his  children  go 
to  work  at  an  early  age,  having  little  or  no  chance  for 
an  education. 

In  southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  boys  are  put  to  work  in 
the  sulphur  mines;  they  are  often  sold  outright  until 
maturity  for  from  ten  to  twenty  dollars  each.  The  parent 
hopes  to  redeem  them  but  seldom  is  able  to  do  so,  and 
they  are  compelled  to  work  like  slaves  until  they  come 
of  age.  In  these  mines  they  bring  the  sulphur  up  to  the 
surface  upon  their  backs  and  generally  go  stark  naked. 
Children  ordinarily  are  expected  to  earn  their  own  way 
as  soon  as  they  reach  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen, 
and  sometimes  even  before  that.  The  laborer  is  in  such  a 
poor  position  for  bargaining  that  he  gets  leases  only 
on  ruinous  terms.  It  is  much  the  same  as  with  the 
American  Negro,  only  much  worse.  Also  when  he  goes 
to  work  for  wages  he  is  frequently  compelled  to  leave 
home  and  travel  to  find  work.  This  breaks  up  the  home 
life  and  is  one  cause  of  the  terrible  moral  conditions  that 
exist  in  Italy  to-day.  Because  so  many  men  leave  the 


90  Immigration 

country  there  is  a  preponderance  of  females;  woman 
becomes  cheap,  family  ties  are  lax,  and  immorality 
nourishes. 

As  a  result  of  ignorance,  bad  environment,  and  the 
necessity  of  going  to  work  so  early  in  life,  marriages  are 
contracted  at  a  very  early  age.  For  the  same  reason 
the  birth  rate  is  high  and  families  are  large.  The  death 
rate  is  likewise  high.  The  population  is  denser  than  that 
of  Germany,  France,  India,  or  China,  and  is  only  exceeded 
by  that  of  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Japan,  and,  in  America, 
Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts. 

Before  the  war  the  Italian  peasant  spent  85  per  cent  of 
his  income  for  food,  as  against  62  per  cent  spent  by  the 
German  worker,  and  41  per  cent  by  the  American  work- 
man. Then  in  addition  the  army  and  navy  expenditures 
of  the  Italian  government  took  five  per  cent  of  the  in- 
come of  the  people,  which  was  higher  than  that  of  Ger- 
many or  France.  These  expenditures  for  the  United 
States  amounted  to  only  two  per  cent.  Five  years  of 
service  in  the  army  or  navy  were  required  of  every  able- 
bodied  peasant. 

It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  when  the  Italian  heard  of 
better  wages  in  America  he  wanted  to  come.  The  motives 
prompting  him  were  purely  economic.  He  did  not,  as  a 
rule,  look  upon  America  as  a  permanent  home,  but  merely 
as  a  place  where  he  could  earn  some  money.  He  has 
come  not  only  to  America,  but  he  has  gone  to  other 
countries  as  well — in  fact,  wherever  there  has  been  a 
demand  for  labor.  Recently  South  America  has  attracted 
him.  The  Italian  has  laid  railroads  in  the  United  States, 
South  America,  Australia,  and  even  in  Siberia.  He  has 
dug  canals,  subways,  and  ditches;  laid  sewers;  built 
streets.  In  fact,  he  has  done  all  kinds  of  unskilled  labor. 
But  once  having  his  pocket  filled,  he  is  quite  ready  to 
return  to  his  native  Italy  and  spend  it  all  there. 

While  undoubtedly  emigration  has  been  a  relief  to  Italy 
in  that  it  has  taken  away  her  surplus  population  and 
sent  back  millions  of  dollars  each  year,  it  has  not  been 
the  best  method  of  solving  her  problem.  While  emigrants 


Immigration  91 

have  sent  back  from  $30,000,000  to  $80,000,000  each  year, 
Italy  has  not  been  repaid  for  her  loss  in  citizenship.  Over 
12,000,000  people  have  left  Italy,  one-third  coming  to  the 
United   States,   one-third   going  to   South  America,  and 
the  rest  to  other  countries.     But  these  12,000,000  have 
been  Italy's  sturdiest  and  best  citizens.    Many  have  re- 
turned physical  wrecks,  being  worn  out  by  the  strenuous 
labor  and  unhealthful  conditions,  such  as  the  rigor  of 
our  climate;  many  returned  only  to  die.     This  situation 
has  alarmed  the  Italian  government,  and  it  has  recently 
taken  steps  to  retard  emigration.    To  solve  the  situation, 
Italy  must  educate  her  people  so  that  they  can  be  more 
productive  and  thus  assist  in  solving  their  social  problems. 
In  the  United  States  the  Italian  usually  goes  first  to 
the   construction  camps.     When  he  becomes  more  pros- 
perous he  becomes  an  organ  grinder  or  junk  dealer  or 
sets  up  a  fruit  stand.     Economically  he  is  prosperous; 
but  he  generally  sends  a  large  share  of  this  prosperity 
back  to  Italy  and  later  takes  the  remainder  with  him, 
for  he  usually  returns.    Socially,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the 
Italian  is  a  problem,  since  he  brings  a  lower  standard  of 
living  with  him.     Yet  without  him  it  would  have  been 
very  difficult  to  build  our  railroads,  dig  our  subways, 
lay  our  sewers,  and  pave  our  streets.     Economically  he 
has  been  a  boon  to  our  capitalist,  but  a  competitor  to 
our  native  laborer.    Undoubtedly  he  has  lowered  wages, 
or  at  least  has  kept  them  from  advancing.     Socially  and 
morally  he  has  been  more  of  a  detriment  than  a  help.    He 
has  brought  us  such  problems  as  the  Black  Hand.     He 
lives  in  crowded  sections  of  our  cities  when  not  in  a  con- 
struction camp,  enduring  conditions  and  living  on  wages 
that  an  American  would  not  tolerate.     He  has  a  very 
high    rate    of   illiteracy    and    does   not    readily   become 
assimilated — at  least  not  so  readily  as  some  other  immi- 
grants.    This  is  largely  owing  to  the  lack  of  close  con- 
tact with  Americans,  rather  than  to  the  quality  of  his 
mind,  for  the  Italian  is  unusually  quick  of  mind  and  keen 
of  perception.    He  is  also  of  a  friendly  and  genial  dispo- 
sition, although  revengeful.    While  personally  by  no  means 


92  Immigration 

a  bad  fellow,  as  a  class  the  Italian  immigrant  has  been 
a  dangerous  element  in  our  population  because  of  his 
competition  with  native  labor,  lack  of  education,  and 
low  standards  of  living  and  of  morality. 

Whether  we  receive  many  Italian  immigrants  in  the 
future  depends  entirely  upon  the  economic  prosperity  of 
Italy  after  the  return  of  normal  times.  In  some  ways  the 
war  has  helped  Italy,  in  that  it  has  given  her  the  long- 
desired  opportunity  of  developing  industrially.  In  the 
past  this  has  not  been  possible  because  of  competition, 
especially  from  Germany.  The  war  prevented  the  admis- 
sion of  German  manufactured  products,  and  with  Allied 
encouragement  many  factories  were  built.  If  these  con- 
tinue to  prosper  and  the  movement  grows,  work  can  be 
furnished  the  returned  soldiers.  One  great  handicap  will 
be  the  lack  of  coal,  but  this  will  be  offset  by  an  abundant 
labor  supply.  If  industry  is  not  thus  built  up,  emigration 
will  be  renewed  at  an  even  greater  rate  than  before  the 
war,  and  if  the  United  States  could  offer  them  economic 
inducements,  such  as  high  wages,  we  would  be  threatened 
with  a  return  of  the  tide  of  Italian  immigration,  unless 
other  countries  should  offer  greater  inducements. 
America,  however,  through  its  literacy  tests  and  new  laws 
regulating  the  proportion  that  each  country  shall  send, 
is  already  providing  a  cheek  to  this  menace. 

The  Slav. — The  Slav  is  divided  into  eight  different 
groups,  as  follows:  (1)  Polish,  (2)  Slovak,  (3)  Croatian 
and  Slovenian,  (4)  Ruthenian  or  Rusniak,  (5)  Bohemian 
and  Moravian,  (6)  Bulgarian  and  Montenegrin,  (7) 
Russian,  and  (8)  Dalmatian,  Bosnian,  and  Herzegovinian.1 
Each  of  these  is  distinct  from  the  others  but  ordinarily 
undistinguished,  because  the  average  American  is  not 
familiar  enough  with  European  geography  to  know  the 
exact  location  of  all  the  countries  and  provinces  from 
which  these  people  come.  Even  our  census  bureau  classi- 
fies them  according  to  the  nation  from  which  they  de- 
parted rather  than  according  to  the  divisions  of  the 

*Balch,  Emily,  Our  Slavic  Fellow -citizens. 


Immigration  93 

Slavic  race.  Each  group  has  its  own  customs  and  charac- 
teristics, and  some  groups  are  much  more  desirable  than 
others.  The  Bohemians,  for  example,  are  much  higher 
in  culture  and  education  than  others,  because  of  having 
lived  in  proximity  to  Germany ;  they  also  furnish  a  higher 
percentage  of  skilled  laborers. 

The  languages  spoken  by  the  Slavs  are  almost  as 
numerous  as  their  political  groups,  there  being  at  least 
six  different  tongues,  to  say  nothing  of  dialects.  They 
are  as  follows:  (1)  Russian,  divided  further  into  Great, 
Little,  and  White  Russian;  (2)  Bulgarian;  (3)  Servo- 
Croatian;  (4)  Slovenian;  (5)  Polish;  (6)  Bohemian  and 
Slovak.  While  having  a  general  resemblance,  they  are 
distinct  languages,  rich  in  grammatical  forms  and  com- 
binations of  consonants  peculiar  each  to  itself.  This  has 
added  to  the  difficulties  of  our  immigration  officials. 

In  regard  to  physique  the  Slav  is  short,  thick-set, 
stocky,  and  heavy  in  motion ;  he  has  a  broad  face,  wide- 
set  eyes,  usually  blue  in  color,  a  broad  snub  nose,  and  a 
loM^ering  forehead.  His  disposition  ranges  from  sullen 
to  severe.  He  is  characterized  by  a  lack  of  aggressive- 
ness and  cohesion,  although  he  makes  a  brave  and  fear- 
less fighter  when  properly  led.  The  Pole  under  Napoleon 
was  a  dreaded  fighter,  but  when  he  meets  the  German 
warrior  he  is  usually  defeated  because  of  the  lack  of 
organization. 

The  Slav,  coming  formerly  from  Asia,  to-day  comprises 
about  one-fourth  of  the  400,000,000  population  of  Europe. 
Since  settling  in  Europe  he  has  lost  much  territory,  for 
at  one  time  he  held  half  of  Germany,  and  what  was 
formerly  Austria-Hungary. 

The  economic  condition  of  Austria-Hungary  before  the 
war  was  very  similar  to  that  of  Italy  in  respect  to  the 
use  of  antique  methods.  The  land  was  held  in  strips, 
for  when  serfdom  was  abolished  in  1848  it  was  so  divided 
among  the  serfs  that  each  could  get  a  strip  of  meadow, 
a  strip  of  upland,  and  a  right  to  pasture  land. 

The  political  conditions  in  Austria-Hungary  before  the 
war  were  chaotic.  Each  division  hated  the  other. 


94  Immigration 

had  few  things  in  common,  having  separate  money, 
separate  legislatures,  and  separate  postal  systems.  They 
had  a  ruler  in  common — or  rather,  the  Hungarians  were 
under  the  Austrian  emperor.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  many  Slavic  regiments  went  over  in  a  body  to  the 
Russians,  and  the  Austrian  government  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  stopping  desertions  and  compelling  enlistments. 
In  many  cases,  especially  in  Galatia,  it  resorted  to  stern 
methods,  killing  the  inhabitants  of  entire  villages  or  shoot- 
ing entire  regiments  who  would  not  obey  orders.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  twenty-fourth  Bohemian  regiment,  con- 
sisting of  3000  men,  was  massacred  in  this  manner,  its 
officers  turning  the  machine  guns  upon  the  soldiers  when 
they  refused  to  fight  against  the  Serbians,  and  that  only 
twenty-nine  survived. 

Yet  the  Slavs  seldom  hang  together  and  are  easily  set 
into  hostile  camps,  as  was  evidenced  in  the  Second  Balkan 
War,  when  Serbia,  Greece,  and  Eoumania  turned  upon 
Bulgaria,  because  Bulgaria  took  the  lion's  share  of  the 
spoils  of  the  First  Balkan  War.  This  was  probably  the 
chief  cause  of  Bulgaria's  casting  her  lot  with  Germany — 
so  as  to  fight  Serbia  again.  This  jealousy  has  thus  far 
kept  the  Balkan  states  from  uniting  and  forming  a  strong 
federation. 

Social  reforms  are  difficult  with  such  people,  for  they 
are  too  ignorant  to  appreciate  them.  They  look  upon 
disease  as  being  sent  by  God,  and  hold  any  attempt  to 
check  it  cowardly  because  we  are  not  willing  to  take 
what  God  sends.  The  social  standing  of  the  peasant  is 
below  that  of  the  merchant  but  higher  than  that  of  the 
laborer.  Every  peasant  has  a  fear  of  becoming  a  mere 
laborer — a  possibility  that  has  stared  him  in  the  face 
constantly  because  of  the  economic  conditions.  This  fear 
has  been  one  of  the  strongest  incentives  for  emigration. 
Men  have  even  borrowed  money  in  order  to  come  to 
America.  The  position  of  woman  is  very  low;  she  is 
beaten  by  her  husband;  she  is  considered  little  better 
than  a  beast  of  burden,  even  at  times  helping  to  drag 
the  plow.  This  attitude  towards  women  is  one  thing  to 


Immigration  95 

which  the  American  objects.    Here  the  Slav  finds  himself 
in  opposition  to  our  methods  of  life. 

Special  causes  of  emigration  have  been  heavy  taxation, 
army  service,  political  unrest,  and  oppression  on  the  part 
of  the  government.  Emigration  has  also  been  stimulated 
by  the  advertising  of  the  agents  of  the  steamship  com- 
panies. 

The  immigrants  from  Russia  have  been  mostly  Jews, 
Poles,  Finns,  Lithuanians,  and  Germans,  or  in  other 
words,  the  classes  that  have  been  persecuted  or  held  down 
by  the  Eussian  government.  Russia  has  for  generations 
discriminated  against  the  Jews  because  of  their  greater 
intelligence  and  prosperity.  Since  the  conquest  of  Poland 
by  Russia,  Austria,  and  Germany,  Poland  has  been 
oppressed,  especially  Russian  Poland ;  therefore  the  Poles 
have  migrated  to  obtain  political  liberty.  The  Finns  are 
much  superior  to  the  Russians  and  rank  one  of  the 
highest  in  literacy  of  all  the  nations  of  the  world,  far 
exceeding  the  United  States.  They  are  highly  educated 
and  industrious,  but  Russia  gradually  took  away  all  liber- 
ties from  Finland,  including  the  right  to  their  own  lan- 
guage and  educational  system.  It  tried  to  Russianize 
them  and  subjected  them  to  oppressive  taxation.  The 
Russians  themselves  have  formed  the  smallest  part  of  the 
Slavic  group  of  our  immigrants,  for  they,  encouraged 
by  their  government,  went  to  Siberia. 

There  are  about  4,000,000  Slavs  in  the  United  States; 
they  are  largely  in  colonies  where  common  labor  is  in 
demand,  for  example,  in  steel  centers,  such  as  Gary  and 
Pittsburgh.  The  Polish  populations  of  some  of  our  cities 
are  as  follows:  Chicago,  250,000;  Buffalo,  70,000;  Mil- 
waukee, 65,000;  Detroit,  50,000;  Pittsburgh,  50,000; 
Cleveland,  30,000;  Toledo,  14,000.  There  are  423,000 
Slavs  in  Pennsylvania,  389,000  in  Illinois,  and  356,000  in 
New  York. 

The  economic  position  of  the  Slav  is  generally  that  of 
a  laborer,  and  if  he  is  unskilled  and  cannot  speak  English 
his  wages  are  low,  ranging  before  the  war  from  $1.35  to 
$1.65  a  day.  If  skilled,  he  gets  more,  especially  in  the 


96  Immigration 

steel  mills.  He  tries  to  get  the  prevailing  wage,  but  be- 
fore he  acquires  our  language  and  a  knowledge  of  6ur 
customs  he  is  unable  to  do  it.  The  increase  of  immigra- 
tion, especially  of  Slavs  and  Italians,  has  forced  wages 
down,  especially  in  the  mines.  A  characteristic  of  the 
Slav  is  that  he  will  accept  dangerous  and  unhealthful 
work.  In  the  mines  he  will  work  drifts  that  no  one 
else  will  undertake  on  account  of  the  danger ;  in  the  steel 
mills  he  endures  long  hours  and  hard  labor. 

The  social  and  moral  conditions  found  amongst  the 
Slavs  are  bad.  Few  men  brought  their  women  at  first, 
sending  for  them  later.  When  a  man  sent  for  his  wife, 
he  generally  rented  or  built  a  little  shack  of  one  or  two 
rooms.  Then  he  took  in  boarders  and  roomers,  these  often 
sleeping  on  the  floor  as  thick  as  space  would  permit. 
Conditions  for  bringing  up  children  were  thereby  made 
terrible.  The  Slav  is  a  hard  drinker,  especially  of  spirits, 
and  when  drinking  is  very  dangerous,  being  prone  to  fight 
and  to  commit  murder.  Because  the  Slavs  huddle  to- 
gether in  colonies  they  do  not  come  into  contact  with 
our  habits  and  customs,  but  maintain  their  old  ones,  some- 
times even  lowering  their  own  standards  of  living  in  order 
to  save  as  much  money  as  possible.  The  housing  con- 
ditions among  the  Slavs  in  the  packing  house  districts 
of  Chicago  are  among  the  worst  in  the  city.  There  is 
little  regard  paid  to  sanitation  and  hygiene;  their  moral 
condition  is  also  bad. 

The  greatest  increase  in  Slavic  immigration  before  the 
war  was  from  the  Hungarians,  the  number  of  whom  was, 
in  1890,  thirteen  times  the  number  in  1880;  next  came 
the  Poles,  the  number  of  whom  increased  eight  times; 
then  the  Lithuanians  and  Serbians.  Bohemian  immigra- 
tion fell  off.  In  recent  years  the  immigration  from  the 
Balkan  states  has  increased  rapidly. 

Whether  we  receive  a  large  Slavic  immigration  in  the 
future,  or  not,  will  depend  upon  the  future  prosperity 
of  the  Slavic  states,  especially  the  new  ones  formed  by 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  If  the  new  governments  estab- 
lished in  Poland,  Hungary,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Jugo-Slavia, 


Immigration  97 

Finland,  and  Russia  succeed  in  obtaining  for  their  peoples 
greater  economic  prosperity  as  well  as  better  political 
privileges  and  social  conditions,  we  can  expect  no  great  im- 
migration from  those  countries.  The  same  will  be  true  with 
regard  to  Koumania  and  Bulgaria.  If  these  governments 
fail,  we  may  expect  to  see  a  return  of  the  Slav  in  immi- 
gration, but  present  indications  seem  to  point  towards 
a  decline,  rather  than  an  increase.  In  many  districts, 
such  as  Poland,  the  population  was  so  thinned  out  by 
the  war  that  there  will  be  no  surplus  population  for 
years  to  come.  Most  of  these  Slavic  states  will  begin 
their  careers  without  the  burden  of  heavy  debts,  because 
the  new  governments  will  not  be  obliged  to  assume  the 
obligations  of  the  older  states;  this  will  be  a  decided 
advantage.  The  enforcement  of  the  literacy  test  will 
act  still  further  to  restrict  Slavic  immigration  because 
a  large  percentage  of  Slavs  are  illiterate.  If  Slavic  immi- 
gration does  not  return,  the  United  States  will  be  the 
gainer,  for  we  have  considered  this  class  of  immigration 
undesirable  because  of  their  low  standards  of  living. 

Other  Nationalities — Greeks. — The  Greeks  have  come 
to  this  country  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  past  few 
years,  although  they  have  created  no  great  social  prob- 
lem because  of  the  smallness  of  the  Greek  population. 
They  go  mostly  into  such  occupations  as  boot-blacking 
and  restaurant  keeping.  Economically  they  are  pros- 
perous, the  Greek  bootblack  having  put  the  native  Amer- 
ican and  colored  bootblacks  out  of  competition.  In  fact, 
that  is  characteristic  of  the  Greek;  he  generally  takes  up 
some  such  minor  occupation,  systematizes  it,  and  makes 
a  good  thing  out  of  what  some  one  else  treated  only  as  a 
by-product.  One  problem  comes  in  with  the  bootblack 
business,  however — that  is  child  labor  and  the  consequent 
failure  to  obey  the  school  laws.  A  system  almost  like 
peonage  is  resorted  to  at  times,  boys  being  brought  from 
Greece  to  work  in  the  Greek  shoe-shining  parlors. 

The  war  has  undoubtedly  given  Greece  greater  oppor- 
tunities; better  economic  openings  will  be  offered  the 


98  Immigration 

Greek  nearer  home;  hence  there  will  be  fewer  induce- 
ments for  him  to  come  to  America. 

Armenians,  Assyrians,  and  Syrians. — These  three 
nationalities  are  grouped  together  because  of  their  simi- 
larity, not  only  as  regards  racial  stock  and  appearance, 
but  also  in  regard  to  effect  upon  the  United  States.  The 
Armenians  have  come  to  this  country  largely  because  of 
religious  persecutions  by  the  Turkish  government;  the 
first  ones  came  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Christian  mis- 
sionaries among  them.  Many  had  trades,  such  as  baking, 
tailoring  and  shoemaking.  The  amount  of  money  brought 
was  small,  being  only  twenty-three  dollars  per  capita. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  was  quite  high,  being  21.9 
per  cent  for  those  over  fourteen  years  of  age.  Some  are 
highly  educated  merchants  and  are  very  desirable,  but 
others  are  much  less  so.  In  Turkey  the  Armenians  have 
been  the  traders,  and  because  of  their  cleverness  and 
ability  to  get  the  better  of  the  slower-witted  Turks  they 
have  been  much  hated.  When  they  come  to  this  country 
they  generally  settle  in  colonies  in  manufacturing  centers. 

The  Assyrians  and  Syrians  are  much  alike.  They  have 
come  to  this  country  to  escape  the  persecution  of  the 
Turkish  government,  a  persecution  which  has  been  little 
better  than  legalized  robbery.  They  have  furnished  in 
recent  years  the  majority  of  our  pack  peddlers.  Many 
of  these  later  settle  down  as  small  merchants. 

The  Armenian  race  barely  escaped  extermination  during 
the  war,  and  there  are  few  of  them  left.  Turkey  is  now 
being  broken  up  and  greater  liberties  and  opportunities 
will  be  given  Syria  and  Assyria,  so  we  can  expect  to 
receive  fewer  of  them  in  the  future.  On  the  whole  this 
will  not  be.  regretted,  for  as  a  class  these  people  have 
not  been  liked  by  the  American  people — largely  because 
of  their  swarthy  appearance — although  they  have  not 
presented  the  problem  that  the  Slav  and  Italian  have 
given  us. 

Portuguese. — The  Portuguese  have  settled  largely  in 
and  around  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  and  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  with  a  small  settlement  in  California. 


Immigration  99 

K  Portuguese  vessel  was  once  wrecked  near  New  Bed- 
ford; the  sailors  liked  the  place  and  established  them- 
selves there;  from  that  the  Portuguese  immigration 
started.  They  work  in  the  cotton  mills  of  this  and  sur- 
rounding towns.  They  also  go  into  market  gardening, 
in  which  they  are  very  successful,  supplanting  the  native 
Americans,  largely  because  of  their  ability  to  undersell 
them.  They  are  very  industrious  but  compel  the  whole 
family  to  work.  To  do  this  they  take  the  children  out 
of  school  as  soon  as  the  law  permits,  looking  upon  com- 
pulsory school  attendance  in  much  the  same  way  as  they 
would  required  military  service.  Their  standards  are 
lower  than  those  of  the  native  Americans  but  they  quickly 
accumulate  property,  and  it  will  be  only  a  matter  of  a 
few  generations  till  they  form  a  sturdy  part  of  our  popu- 
lation. They  are  small  in  number,  however,  coming  only 
to  the  regions  indicated.  Their  landing  in  Hawaii  was 
much  the  same  as  at  New  Bedford.  Here  they  work  on 
the  plantations  and,  as  in  this  country,  become  econom- 
ically successful. 

French  Canadians. — The  French  Canadians  come  to  us 
principally  from  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Quebec.  They  go  mainly  to  New  England,  where  they 
work  in  the  factories,  and  in  doing  so  underbid  all  races. 
While  the  English,  Scotch,  and  Welsh  become  our  most 
desirable  citizens,  the  French  Canadians  are  among  our 
least  desirable,  largely  because  of  their  past  history. 
They  became  alienated  from  France  and  never  have  been 
assimilated  by  the  English  element  in  Canada.  They  have 
lived  in  the  least  productive  parts  of  Canada  and  have 
become  isolated  and  dropped  backward  in  the  scale  of 
civilization.  Because  their  birth  rate  is  exceedingly  high, 
they  increase  faster  than  almost  any  other  element  of  our 
population. 

Many  come  to  us  as  transients,  and  this  class  generally 
take  for  a  dwelling  any  old  shack  that  they  can  find.  They 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  send  their  children  to  work 
in  the  factories  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible,  evading 
the  school  laws  whenever  they  can.  Besides  working 


100  Immigration 

in  the  factories,  the  French  Canadians  go  into  the  lumber 
camps,  where  they  are  skilled  workmen,  but  are  disliked 
here  as  strongly  as  elsewhere.  They  have  a  great  fond- 
ness for  alcohol,  and  drunkenness  is  common  among  them. 
When  under  the  influence  of  liquor  they  are  quarrelsome 
and  dangerous,  and  they  often  treat  their  families 
brutally,  beating  their  wives  and  children  and  sometimes 
turning  them  out  of  doors.  While  small  in  numbers  they 
form  a  very  undesirable  element,  but  there  is  apparently 
no  way  to  check  their  coming  except  through  the  literacy 
test,  or  percentage  barrier. 

Japanese. — Japanese  immigration  was  insignificant 
until  very  recently;  until  1891  it  amounted  to  less  than 
1000  a  year ;  but  between  1891  and  1905,  95,000  had  come 
in.  The  majority  of  these  first  settlers  stopped  in  Hawaii. 
Census  figures  are  inaccurate  because  so  many  Japanese 
have  entered  by  way  of  Mexico  and  Canada.  Their 
motive  for  coming  is  purely  economic.  Because  of  the 
overpopulation  in  Japan,  wages  there  are  very  low. 
Nevertheless,  because  of  their  frugality  they  bring  with 
them  an  average  of  forty-five  dollars  per  capita.  Their 
wages  in  this  country  are  much  lower  than  wages  paid 
to  white  men,  amounting  before  the  war  to  from  eighty- 
five  to  ninety  cents  a  day  in  the  beet  fields.  Because  they 
do  so  much  work  for  this  small  wage,  they  have  aroused 
the  hatred  of  the  American  worker,  and  have  caused  a 
general  dislike  of  the  Japanese. 

Japanese  immigrants  become  laborers,  farm  hands  and 
servants.  In  California  they  have  taken  up  market 
gardening  and  have  been  very  successful.  This  was  the 
reason  for  the  alien  land  bill  passed  in  California  a  few 
years  ago.  .  In  that  state  they  are  disliked  very  much 
more  than  the  Chinese  because  of  their  fearlessness  and 
stubbornness.  Unlike  the  Chinese  they  are  not  timid  and 
will  fight.  While  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  fairly 
high,  being  21.6  per  cent,  the  Japanese  have  many 
admirable  traits.  They  are  law  abiding,  thrifty,  clean, 
neat,  quick,  intelligent,  and  have  a  high  respect  for  gov- 
ernment. 


Immigration  101 

The  relationship  between  the  United  States  and  Japan 
has  always  been  friendly.  It  was  the  United  States  that 
opened  up  Japan  to  the  world — or  rather  it  was  the 
United  States  that  first  came  along  after  Japan  was 
ready  to  be  opened  up.  The  Japanese  government  has 
regretted  the  emigration  to  the  United  States  and  has 
tried  to  divert  it  to  Korea,  being  fairly  successful  in  the 
attempt.  The  government  issues  few  passports  to  the 
United  States,  most  of  Japanese  immigration  coming  to 
us  by  way  of  Hawaii.  The  effect  of  the  war  upon  Japan 
has  been  to  give  that  nation  tremendous  power  in  the 
East  and  to  extend  her  influence  over  China.  It  is  con- 
sequently to  the  interest  of  the  Japanese  government  to 
keep  her  citizens  in  Asia,  where  she  realizes  her  future 
sphere  is  to  be. 

In  view  of  the  delicate  international  situation,  the 
United  States  has  not  attempted  an  exclusion  act  against 
the  Japanese,  but  has  made  a  "gentleman's  agreement" 
with  Japan  looking  to  the  same  end. 

Chinese. — The  immigration  of  the  Chinese  loomed  up 
as  a  serious  problem  before  the  exclusion  acts  in  the  80 's. 
These  were  carried  out  by  means  of  treaty  agreements 
with  China,  by  which  Chinese  were  debarred  from  enter- 
ing this  country,  except  for  special  purposes,  such  as 
studying  in  our  schools.  Because  the  Chinese  do  not 
intermarry  with  the  Americans,  and  because  not  enough 
Chinese  women  are  imported  to  keep  up  the  population, 
the  numbers  are  dying  out  or  at  least  are  kept  down. 
The  Chinese  originally  brought  with  them  very  low 
standards ;  they  lived  in  hovels,  ate  poor  food,  used  opium 
to  a  great  extent,  and  were  immoral  in  their  habits ;  there- 
fore they  formed  a  very  undesirable  element.  Others  com- 
ing in  more  recently  have  been  of  higher  type,  and  have 
become  successful  in  all  of  our  cities  as  laundrymen,  res- 
taurant keepers,  and  small  merchants.  While  possibly 
unjust  theoretically,  the  exclusion  acts  were  probably 
justified  on  the  grounds  of  social  expediency.  The 
Chinese  were  a  serious  menace  to  American  labor,  on 
account  of  their  willingness  to  underbid  the  native  worker, 


102  Immigration 

and  their  ability  to  live  on  less  due  to  their  lower  standard 
of  living.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  Chinese  are  the  most 
inferior  of  races,  or  that  as  a  race  the  Chinese  are  inferior 
to  the  Japanese,  for  the  Chinese  in  many  ways  are  able 
and  vigorous.  It  was  rather  the  class  of  the  Chinese 
which  we  were  receiving  that  caused  the  problem.  We 
were  receiving  the  coolie  or  laboring  class  and  their  vast 
numbers,  combined  with  the  ability  of  the  Chinese  coolie 
to  live  on  less  than  the  American  laboring  man,  caused  the 
worry  and  produced  the  opposition  to  Chinese  immigration 
and  the  resulting  treaties. 

Mexican. — Another  type  of  immigration  which  affects 
our  Southwest  is  the  Mexican.  This  problem  is  com- 
plicated because  we  have  a  Spanish-American  citizen 
element  in  the  Southwest,  descending  from  earlier  Spanish 
settlers.  Many  of  these,  although  native-born  American 
citizens,  cannot  speak  the  English  language.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  the  women,  for  the  majority  of  the  men 
have  been  compelled  by  association  to  learn  our  language. 
Because  of  the  lack  of  compulsory  education,  till  very 
recent  years  many  have  never  learned  English.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  native  element  in  Southern  California, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  Texas,  we  have  the  constant 
migration  to  and  from  Mexico,  many  coming  to  the 
United  States  to  work  in  our  cotton  fields,  on  our  rail- 
roads, and  in  our  construction  camps.  Until  1918  the 
number  of  recorded  arrivals  ranged  between  10,000  and 
20,000  a  year,  of  whom  about  two-thirds  were  males. 
Since  then  the  number  of  arrivals  has  begun  to  increase 
rapidly,  reaching  52,361  in  1920.  Offsetting  this  immi- 
gration there  has  been  a  constant  emigration,  which,  how- 
ever, fell  off  in  1920,  amounting  to  only  6606  in  that  year. 
In  1920  the  census  gives  269,885  as  the  number  of 
Mexicans  in  the  United  States. 

The  Mexicans  are  generally  laborers  and  live  by  them- 
selves in  their  sections  of  the  towns.  They  are  generally 
peaceful  and  law-abiding  and  are  respected  by  many. 
They  are  innately  polite,  far  exceeding  the  Americans  in 
this  respect.  They  are  lacking  in  physical  strength, 


Immigration  103 

energy,  initiative,  and  mental  and  moral  vigor.  They 
live  on  a  lower  plane — partly  due  to  lower  wages — than 
American  laborers,  and  have  different  religious,  educa- 
tional, and  moral  standards.  While  many  Americans 
respect  them,  others  do  not.  Such  sentiments,  in  fact  de- 
pend largely  upon  locality  and  accompanying  conditions. 
The  problem  is  not  serious,  because  most  of  Mexico  is  not! 
thickly  settled  and  laborers  are  in  demand.  If  Mexico 
ever  achieves  a  strong  democratic  form  of  government, 
this  immigration  may  diminish. 

Hindu. — The  Hindu  is  an  entirely  new  class  which 
as  yet  is  a  very  unimportant  element  in  our  immigrant 
stream.  But  if  it  increases  in  numbers  it  will  be  very 
serious,  for  the  Hindu  brings  with  him  a  low  standard, 
lower  in  fact  than  that  of  the  Chinese.  He  is  also  haughty, 
and  considers  his  philosophy  of  life  superior  to  ours.  As 
yet  few  Hindus  have  come,  but  if  they  do  increase,  steps 
will  have  to  be  taken  to  stop  them,  possibly  by  means  of 
a  treaty  with  Great  Britain — a  treaty  which  undoubtedly 
could  be  easily  negotiated.  The  Hindus  have  thus  far  gone 
more  to  Canada  than  to  the  United  States,  but  in  Canada 
they  are  as  little  desired  as  here;  many  having  been 
refused  admission. 

Tides  of  Immigration. — As  before  noted,  immigration 
has  come  to  this  country  in  waves,  the  waves  following 
our  periods  of  prosperity.  The  first  big  wave  came  in 
1842,  when  the  100,000  mark  was  reached.  Then  because 
of  the  financial  uncertainty  of  the  next  year  and  because 
of  the  political  unrest  owing  to  the  Mexican  War,  immi- 
gration fell  off.  The  next  wave  did  not  reach  our  shores 
till  1854,  when  427,000  foreigners  arrived.  After  the 
Civil  War  the  wave  did  not  return  till  1882 — when  the 
country  had  recovered  from  the  panic  of  1873;  but  this 
time  it  reached  788,000.  Thereafter  the  number  decreased 
and  did  not  reach  the  former  level  until  the  country 
had  repaired  the  losses  caused  by  the  panic  of  1893.  It 
increased  in  the  later  90 's  and  reached  its  crest  in  1907, 
just  before  the  panic  of  that  year,  when  1,285,349  were 
received.  The  number  of  arrivals  immediately  fell  off 


104  Immigration 

but  soon  began  again  to  increase  until,  in  1913  and  1914, 
the  number  had  almost  reached  the  high-water  mark  of 
1907.  With  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  immigration 
immediately  decreased,  the  tide  turned  in  the  opposite 
direction,  for  many  aliens  returned  to  fight  in  the  Euro- 
pean armies.  The  next  year  immigration  had  fallen  to 
326,700  or  26.8  per  cent  of  that  of  the  preceding  year. 

A  Further  Check  on  Immigration. — During  the  last' 
years  of  the  War  immigration  was  negligible,  but  with 
the  dawn  of  peace  it  set  in  again  so  strongly,  in  1920 
and  1921,4  that  our  government  was  compelled  to  adopt 
new  restrictive  measures.  These  took  the  form  of  a  law 
enacted  in  May,  1921,  stating  that  "the  number  of  aliens 
of  any  nationality  who  may  be  admitted  under  the  immi- 
gration laws  of  the  United  States  in  any  fiscal  year  shall 
be  limited  to  three  per  centum  of  the  number  of  foreign- 
born  persons  of  such  nationality  resident  in  the  United 
States  as  determined  by  the  United  States  census  of  1910." 
Under  this  law  the  quota  for  the  fiscal  year  1921-1922 
(twelve  months)  was  355,825;  and  this  was  further 
divided  into  months  of  entry. 

A  Look  Ahead. — No  one  can  confidently  predict  what 
the  future  has  in  store  for  us  in  respect  to  immigration.  If, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  the  Slavic  countries  of  Middle 
Europe  are  able  to  establish  sound  economic,  social  and 
political  conditions,  we  can  expect  this  large  source  of 
past  immigration  to  yield  us  few  immigrants  in  the  future. 
If  France  and  England  regain  something  of  their  former 
prosperity,  we  cannot  look  for  an  increase  from  that 
quarter.  The  neutral  countries,  especially  the  Scandi- 
navian, will  not  be  burdened  with  debt  and  will  be  able 
to  find  a  ready  market  for  their  products;  so  we  cannot 
look  for  a  return  of  Scandinavian  immigration.  In  Ger- 
many and  Austria  there  may  be  a  strong  desire  to  escape 
the  inevitable  taxation  and  the  economic  depression ;  but 
on  the  other  hand  our  country  will  be  in  no  temper  to 
receive  such  a  migration,  even  though  in  the  past  we 

4 1916,  298,826;  1917,  295,403;  1918,  110,618;  1919,  141,132;  1920, 
430,001;  1921,  805,228. 


Immigration  105 

considered  the  Teuton  desirable.  In  all  likelihood  if  such 
immigration  begins,  our  government  will  take  steps  to 
end  it,  either  by  treaty  or  by  direct  legislative  action. 
The  situation  in  Turkey  is  very  uncertain,  but  the 
oppressed  races  in  that  country  will  receive  political  and 
religious  freedom  and  better  social  and  economic  con- 
ditions through  the  intervention  of  the  European  nations, 
hence  we  can  expect  fewer  immigrants  from  that  quarter. 
Russia  and  Italy  are  the  uncertain  elements;  the  results 
will  depend  upon  their  future  prosperity.  If  Italy  is 
unable  to  gain  economic  prosperity  by  the  development 
of  industry,  her  people  will  seek  to  escape  poverty  and 
the  increased  burden  of  taxation  by  migration.  With 
Russia  the  situation  will  largely  depend  upon  the  success 
of  that  country's  efforts  to  establish  a  stable  democratic 
government.  She  has  thrown  off  her  old  despotic  gov- 
ernment which  in  the  past  stood  in  the  way  of  progress, 
but  it  is  too  early  to  predict  what  form  of  government 
will  take  its  place. 

The  latest  statistics  available — from  July  1,  1921,  to 
March  1, 1922,  show  a  decided  change  in  immigration.  Dur- 
ing this  period  we  received  226,841  immigrants  and  152,649 
emigrated.  The  chief  reasons  for  the  change  are  prohibition 
and  unemployment;  also  Italian  immigration  has  been  re- 
stricted by  the  three  per  cent  regulation,  which  has  affected 
the  Italians  more  than  any  other  group.  The  following 
table  indicates  the  arrivals  and  departures  of  the  leading 
groups. 

Immi-  Emi-  Immi-  Emi- 

Group  grant  grant             Group  grant  grant 

Italians    39,523  40,666  English    19,301  6,349 

Polish   5,963  25,166  Irish   10,363  6,349 

Other  Slavs 24,396  27,718  Scandinavians...  9,789  2,888 

Hebrews 41,689  516  Scotch    9,267  1,100 

Germans 21,409  3,798  Mexicans 8,471 

BEADING  REFERENCES 
Found  at  End  of  Chapter 


CHAPTER  VII 

IMMIGRATION   (Continued) 

Effect  of  Immigration  Upon  the  Population  of  the 
United  States. — Between  the  years  1909  and  1920  the  net 
increase  of  foreign  born  was  4,485,000,  or  nearly  375,000 
per  annum.  In  1920  there  were  13,712,754  foreign-born 
persons  in  the  United  States — 13  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  of  105,710,620.  But  if  we  include  those  born 
here  of  foreign  and  mixed  parentage,  we  find  the  number 
considerably  greater,  amounting  in  that  year  to  36,398,958, 
or  34.4  per  cent.  And  we  must  consider  those  of  foreign 
parentage,  for  very  often,  especially  in  our  large  cities, 
the  children  of  the  foreign-born  create  greater  problems 
than  do  the  immigrants  themselves.  Of  course  those  of 
foreign  birth  or  parentage  are  not  evenly  distributed 
over  the  country.  The  following  percentages  indicate 
principal  area  of  distribution  statistics  for  1920: 

Percentage 

Foreign  and 

Mixed  Parentage 

69.5 
66.8 
65.8 
62.6 
62.4 
64.8 
66.7 
46.3 
52.6 
49.8 
59.4 
47.2 

While  nearly  all  the  states  that  lead  in  the  percentage 
of  foreign-born  are  near  the  top  in  respect  to  foreign 
parentage,  we  notice  a  few  leading  in  foreign  parentage 

.106 


States 
Rhode  Island    

Percentage 
Foreign  Born 
28.7 

Massachusetts    

28.0 

Connecticut    

27.3 

New  York   

26.8 

New  Jersey  

25.4 

Minnesota   

20.4 

North  Dakota  

20.3 

California   

19.9 

Michigan    

19.8 

18.6 

Wisconsin    

17.5 

Montana   . 

17.1 

Immigration  107 

that  have  an  insignificant  number  of  foreign-born,  such 
as  Michigan,  Montana,  and  Utah,  showing  that  immi- 
grants are  no  longer  drawn  to  those  states.  Practically 
all  the  recent  immigration  went  to  ten  states.  And  if  we 
examine  the  figures  for  1920  for  the  ten  leading  cities  of  the 
United  States,  arranged  in  order  of  size,  we  shall  see 
that  they  have  received  the  majority  of  this  immigration, 
almost  in  the  order  of  their  size.  Here  we  shall  find  the 
ratio  much  the  same  in  both  columns. 

Percentage 

Percentage  Foreign  and 

City  Foreign  Born  Mixed  Parentage 

New  York   35.4  76.4 

Chicago   29.8  72.0 

Philadelphia    19.8  54.2 

Detroit    29.2  64.2 

Cleveland    31.0  70.0 

St.  Louis   12.4  44.4 

Boston   31.9  73.3 

Baltimore    11.4  33.6 

Pittsburgh    19.1  56.7 

Los  Angeles    19.4  43.8 

A  few  of  the  smaller  cities  show  even  higher  ratios  than  some  of 
the  above,  such  as: 

Providence    32.6  72.5 

Newark   28.2  68.4 

New  York  is  said  to  have  the  largest  German  popula- 
tion of  any  city  in  the  world  after  Berlin;  the  largest 
Italian  population  after  Naples ;  the  largest  Irish  popula- 
tion with  no  exception;  and  by  far  the  largest  Jewish 
population. 

Not  only  have  our  immigrants  gone  to  certain  localities, 
but  each  nationality  has  had  its  own  particular  place  or 
places  in  which  to  settle.  The  Germans  have  had  two 
favorite  regions — New  York  and  Pennsylvania  in  the 
East,  and  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  in  the  West.  Many  have 
gone  to  other  localities,  but  even  there  they  generally 
have  settled  in  colonies.  The  Scandinavians  have  gone 
to  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  The  Italians  have  re- 
mained in  the  East,  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Connecticut.  In  1910  three-fourths,  or 


106  Immigration 

997,000  of  the  1,343,000  immigrants  born  in  Italy,  were 
living  in  those  states  and  in  Illinois.  While  the  Jews 
come  from  all  countries  and  from  all  kinds  of  communi- 
ties,  they  nearly  always  have  gone  to  the  cities,  especially 
to  New  York;  93,000  out  of  149,000  who  came  in  1907  set- 
tled in  that  state.  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Illinois 
have  received  the  Slavs  in  the  order  given.  This  flock- 
ing to  our  cities  which  were  already  overcrowded  has 
been  one  of  the  serious  aspects  of  immigration.  If  the 
newcomers  had  gone  to  the  rural  regions  we  could  easily 
have  absorbed  them.  In  the  large  cities  they  live  in  the 
most  thickly  settled  districts  where  they  meet  only  those 
of  their  own  nationality,  or  at  best  immigrants  of  other 
nationalities,  and  seldom  come  into  close  contact  with 
the  native  American;  so  it  is  very  difficult  for  us  to 
assimilate  them.  This  is  especially  true  when  there  is 
little  necessity  or  incentive  for  learning  the  English  lan- 
guage— to  say  nothing  of  acquiring  our  customs  and 
habits.  Here  also  they  easily  have  fallen  below  the  pov- 
erty line  and  the  more  easily  have  sunk  into  vice  and 
crime,  especially  in  the  second  generation.  The  Euro- 
pean immigrant  has  not  gone  to  the  South  because  of  the 
competition  of  the  Negro. 

Effect  of  Immigration  Upon  Industry. — The  bulk  of  our 
immigrants  are  unskilled  laborers.  Even  if  they  had 
some  degree  of  skill  in  their  native  country,  that  skill 
very  often  is  of  no  avail  to  them  here  because  of  the 
different  methods  of  production.  Of  the  857,721  immi- 
grants coming  in  1921,  only  14,592  belonged  to  the  pro- 
fessional classes,  and  only  131,774 — or  about  15  per  cent 
— were  skilled  workmen.  The  percentage  differs  greatly, 
moreover,  with  the  nationalities,  many  of  the  Jews  and 
Bohemians  being  as  well  trained  as  those  coming  from 
the  nations  of  northern  Europe.  But  of  the  242,000  com- 
ing from  southern  Italy  in  1907,  only  701  were  skilled; 
of  the  138,000  Poles  only  273  had  trades.  This  invasion 
furnished  the  capitalist  with  a  large  supply  of  cheap  labor 
and  consequently  boomed  industry,  especially  industries 
which  need  unskilled  labor,  such  as  the  steel,  woolen  and 


Immigration  109 

cotton  mills.  It  made  big  corporations  and  trusts  possible 
in  such  lines  of  industry.  The  railroads  would  have  been 
handicapped  without  this  mass  of  labor  to  draw  upon. 
Many  additions  and  improvements  would  not  have  been 
made,  for  native  labor  would  have  been  too  expensive. 
In  short,  immigration  has  been  a  boon  to  the  capitalist 
and  made  it  possible  for  him  to  pile  up  his  millions. 
While  the  immigrant  forms  only  one-seventh  of  our  total 
population,  he  makes  up  one-half  of  the  number  of  people 
engaged  in  manufacturing;  one-fourth  of  those  in  trans- 
portation; one-fourth  of  those  in  mining,  and  one-fourth 
of  those  in  domestic  service. 

Where  the  immigrant  has  entered  an  industry  he  has 
supplanted  the  native  workers,  but  this  has  not  been 
altogether  bad,  for  it  has  forced  the  natives  up  in  the 
scale.  Then  again  the  older  races,  as  soon  as  they  acquire 
American  standards,  are  in  turn  forced  out  by  later 
arrivals.  Some  illustrations  of  this  are  of  interest.  The 
manufacture  of  collars  and  cuffs  was  carried  on  formerly 
by  the  Irish;  they  were  supplanted  by  the  Poles,  who  in 
turn  gave  way  to  the  Armenians.  In  the  manufacture 
of  woolens,  worsteds,  and  underwear,  the  Irish  and 
English  were  displaced  by  the  Poles  and  Italians.  In 
the  production  of  cotton  goods  the  English-speaking  races 
were  pushed  aside  by  the  Italians  and  Poles.  In  the 
manufacture  of  men's  and  women's  clothing  the  Germans 
were  supplanted  by  the  Russians  and  Italians.  In  the 
paper  industry  the  Germans,  English,  and  Irish  were 
eliminated  by  Russians  and  Poles.  In  the  production  of 
gas  and  electric  fixtures  the  Italians  and  Russians  sup- 
planted the  Germans.  In  the  rope  industry  the  Irish 
were  pushed  aside  by  the  Swedes,  who  in  turn  gave  way 
to  the  Italians.  An  especially  good  illustration  of  this 
process  can  be  observed  in  the  cotton  textile  industry  of 
New  England.  This  industry  was  begun  by  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  American  families,  direct  descendants  of 
the  founders  of  this  nation.  Their  places  were  taken 
by  the  Irish,  but  the  Irish  were  forced  to  give  way  to 
the  French  Canadians.  Now  the  French  Canadians  are 


110  Immigration 

being  forced  out  by  the  Portuguese,  Greeks,  Syrians, 
Poles  and  Italians.  The  tailors  in  New  York  formerly 
were  English  and  Scotch,  then  Irish  and  Germans,  next 
Russian  Jews ;  but  now  the  Jews  are  being  driven  out  by 
the  Italians.  It  is  the  same  in  Boston,  only  there  the 
Portuguese  take  a  hand.  In  Chicago  the  problem  is  very 
similar,  except  that  the  addition  of  Poles  and  Bohemians 
lends  variety  to  the  mixture.  "As  soon  as  a  race  rises 
in  the  scale  of  living,  and  through  organization  begins 
to  demand  higher  wages  and  resist  the  pressure  of  long 
hours  and  overexertion,  the  employers  substitute  another 
race  and  the  process  is  repeated."  l 

While  immigration  has  helped  to  build  up  the  United 
States  industrially,  it  has  brought  about  other  conditions 
which  are  not  so  satisfactory.  The  large  profits  derived 
from  these  industries  have  not  gone  to  pay  higher  wages, 
provide  better  dwellings  for  the  workers,  or  even  to  pro- 
vide better  streets  and  other  improvements  for  the  manu- 
facturing towns ;  instead  they  have  gone  into  the  pockets 
of  the  stockholders.  They  have  gone  to  pay  dividends 
on  stock,  much  of  which  consists  of  water,  and  to  pay 
large  salaries  to  managers.  President  Wood  of  the  Amer- 
ican Woolen  Company  was  said  to  be  receiving  a  salary 
of  $50,000  at  the  time  of  the  Lawrence  strike  in  the  winter 
of  1911-12,  at  which  time  the  average  wage  in  his  mills 
was  under  six  dollars  a  week;  some  workers  receiving 
as  low  as  three  dollars  a  week. 

Effect  of  Immigration  Upon  Labor. — While  immigra- 
tion has  been  a  distinct  aid  to  the  capitalist,  it  has  been 
an  equally  distinct  detriment  to  the  laborer.  The  influx 
of  such  a  great  mass  of  labor,  especially  unskilled,  in 
such  a  short  time  and  in  such  limited  districts,  has  upset 
the  balance  of  supply  and  demand.  Wages  are  fixed, 
not  by  the  productivity  of  labor  in  actual  life,  but  by 
the  supply  of  labor  coupled  with  its  bargaining  power. 
Productivity  of  labor  only  sets  its  upper  limit,  one  above 
which  wages  cannot  go;  the  actual  wage  paid  is  often 
far  below  it.  Hence  immigration  has  kept  the  wages  of 

1  Commons,  Baces  and  Immigrants  in  America,  p.  152,  1920. 


Immigration  111 

American  workmen  from  advancing  as  rapidly  as  they 
otherwise  would  have  done,  for,  while  the  immigrant  has 
come  to  this  country  to  make  a  fortune,  and  wants  the 
highest  wage  possible,  he  is  not  in  a  position  to  demand 
it.  Wages  are  not  paid  according  to  the  desire  or  need 
of  the  worker  but  rather  to  the  contrary;  if  one  needs  a 
high  wage,  that  need  will  count  against  one  if  he  attempts 
to  get  it.  One's  necessity  decreases  one's  power  of  re- 
sistance and  lowers  the  bargaining  position.  The  employer 
pays  as  small  a  wage  as  possible,  and  since  the  immigrant 
has  little  money  and  must  take  any  work  he  can  get,  he 
cannot  haggle  over  higher  wages. 

Immigrant  labor  is  unorganized  and  is  not  able  to 
present  a  solid  front  against  capital;  the  immigrant 
bargains  only  as  an  individual.  The  employer  does  not 
care  whether  a  certain  man  or  some  one  else  has  the 
job ;  so  there  is  no  opportunity  for  argument — the  immi- 
grant has  to  take  what  is  offered.  Thus  being  ignorant 
not  only  of  our  customs,  habits  and  language,  but  also 
of  our  prices,  he  thinks  the  wage  offered  to  him  the  best 
obtainable.  Because  of  his  ignorance  the  more  recent 
immigrant  is  hard  to  organize  into  the  unions.  Besides, 
as  soon  as  one  class  or  race  reaches  the  state  where  they 
are  able  to  organize,  the  employers  see  to  it  that  their 
place  is  taken  by  newer  arrivals.  This  has  been  satis- 
factory to  the  employer  but  not  favorable  to  the  worker, 
for  it  has  kept  wages  down. 

The  same  lack  of  funds  that  prevented  advantageous 
bargaining  in  the  city  kept  the  immigrant  from  going 
to  the  rural  districts,  for  he  had  no  money  with  which  to 
buy  land  or  stock  a  farm.  Then  too  the  farmer,  sus- 
picious of  him  because  of  his  difference  in  spech,  habits, 
and  customs,  and  disliking  his  unpresentable  appearance, 
has  not  wanted  him  as  a  laborer.  Hence  he  has  been 
forced  into  the  industries  in  the  already  overcrowded 
centers,  where  he  is  desired  by  the  employer  because  of 
his  willingness  to  be  driven  at  a  hard  pace  and  his  sub- 
mission to  longer  hours  than  the  American  will  tolerate. 
He  will  also  do  more  dangerous  work,  especially  in  the 


112  Immigration 

mines,  entering  dangerous  drifts  and  working  under  con- 
ditions which  his  predecessor  would  not  endure.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  Slav.  It  is  partially  owing  to  his 
ignorance  of  the  actual  danger  and  of  the  fact  that  he 
is  working  longer  hours  than  other  people.  In  this  way 
advantage  is  always  taken  of  him  by  the  employer. 

It  is  sometimes  given  as  an  argument  against  immigra- 
tion that  the  immigrants  send  vast  quantities  of  money 
back  to  Europe.  In  1907  they  sent  back  $275,000,000. 
But  we  must  recognize  the  fact  that  Europe  produced 
these  immigrants  and  that  it  would  have  cost  us  at  least 
$1000  each  to  bring  them  to  manhood.  As  we  received 
that  same  year  (1907)  over  a  million  and  a  quarter  of 
immigrants,  worth  to  America  as  economic  machines  at 
least  $1,000,000,000,  there  was  left  to  our  credit  a  balance 
of  $725,000,000— a  very  profitable  account. 

Social  Effects  of  Immigration. — Standard  of  Living. — 
In  our  study  of  the  different  nationalities  which  make 
up  our  immigrant  population  we  noticed  that  each 
nationality  brought  with  it  the.  standard  of  living  of  the 
country  from  which  it  came.  This  was  particularly 
emphasized  in  regard  to  their  ideas  of  wages  and  the 
necessities  of  life — in  other  words,  their  standards  of  in- 
come and  expenditure.  We  found  that  the  immigrant 
has  been  detrimental  to  the  native  American  workman 
because  he  was  able  and  willing  to  live  on  a  lower  eco- 
nomic plane.  He  has  been  contented  with  earning  less 
and  desirous  of  spending  less.  This  standard  of  living 
applies  not  only  to  the  quality  of  food,  raiment,  and 
shelter,  but  also  to  ethical  and  moral  standards. 

While  the  economic  standard  affects  the  whole  of  life 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  there  are  perhaps  other 
standards  fully  as  important.  The  immigrant  brings  with 
him  different  ideas  in  regard  to  woman's  position.  She 
is  looked  upon  as  an  inferior,  and  among  many  races  is 
treated  merely  as  a  drudge.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
the  Poles;  their  women  expect  to  be  beaten  by  their 
husbands;  in  fact,  they  sometimes  consider  it  strange  if 
their  husbands  do  not  beat  them.  After  the  newcomers 


Immigration  113 

live  in  the  United  States  some  time  they  change  their 
ideas,  of  course ;  but  the  Poles  are  constantly  getting  into 
trouble  with  the  police  for  beating  their  wives.  The 
Germans  have  a  low  estimate  of  woman,  considering  that 
it  is  her  place  to  wait  upon  the  man.  The  Italian  treats 
his  wife  very  well  although  he  will  allow  her  to  work 
in  the  fields  with  him  or  to  go  into  industry  till  the  house- 
hold finances  improve;  but  as  soon  as  this  improvement 
takes  place  she  leaves  the  field  and  factory. 

The  immigrant  has  different  ideas  likewise  in  regard 
to  education.  He  looks  upon  compulsory  education  as 
a  nuisance,  and  sends  his  children  to  school  only  when 
compelled  to  do  so.  He  thinks  of  children  not  as  liabilities 
but  as  assets,  and  generally  regards  education  as  a  neces- 
sary evil  because  it  reduces  the  immediate  possible  earn- 
ings of  the  family  As  soon  as  the  child  reaches  the  age 
limit  for  compulsory  attendance,  he  is  taken  from  school, 
seldom  being  left  to  finish  the  term.  This  desire  to  in- 
crease the  earnings  leads  to  child  labor  and  fraudulent 
methods  of  obtaining  working  permits,  and  to  other 
methods  of  dodging  the  school  or  child  labor  laws.  The 
second  generation,  however,  feels  the  need  of  an  educa- 
tion. They  generally  see  to  it  that  their  children  attend 
school. 

The  immigrant,  especially  the  French,  German,  and 
Russian,  brings  with  him  ideas  of  sexual  morality  that 
differ  from  the  American  point  of  view.  Moral  codes  are 
not  so  strict  in  Europe  as  in  the  United  States;  there  is, 
in  many  countries,  state  regulation  of  vice,  and  prostitu- 
tion is  looked  upon  as  a  profession  which  is  strictly  within 
the  pale  of  the  law.  This  has  had  a  damaging  effect  upon 
our  own  standards.  Our  brothels  have  been  filled  to 
a  great  extent  by  immigrant  women,  of  whom  many  have 
been  imported  for  the  purpose  and  others  enticed  or 
forced  into  them  after  arrival  here.  The  immigrant 
woman  is  ignorant  of  our  customs  and  is  an  easy  victim. 
In  Europe  prostitutes  are  examined  and  to  some  extent 
remain  free  from  disease,  but  in  this  country  there  has 
been  no  examination  and  because  of  this  fact  the  immi- 


114  Immigration 

grants  scatter  the  venereal  diseases  more  than  they  did 
in  their  native  country.  The  immigrant  has  been  com- 
pelled by  economic  conditions  to  live  in  close  proximity 
to  the  redlight  districts  in  our  large  cities,  and  has  thus 
been  exposed  to  greater  temptation  and  has  run  a  greater 
danger  of  contracting  disease.  The  effect  has  been 
especially  damaging  upon  the  second  generation. 

Many  of  the  immigrants  have  brought  with  them  habits 
of  drinking.  The  Irish  have  a  fondness  for  whiskey,  as 
have  also  the  Poles.  The  growth  of  the  brewing  industry 
and  the  tremendous  increase  in  beer  drinking  have  been 
chiefly  caused  by  German  immigration.  Among  these 
peoples  the  saloon-keeper,  in  ante-prohibition  days,  held 
a  position  of  social  prestige,  much  the  same  as  that  held 
among  the  early  Puritans  by  the  tavern-keeper. 

The  matter  of  Sabbath  observance  offers  another  in- 
stance of  difference  in  standards.  The  immigrant  has 
come  from  a  country  where  little  observance  of  the  Sab- 
bath is  practiced,  and  this  fact  has  undoubtedly  had  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  decline  in  the  observance  of 
the  Sabbath  among  us.  Now  what  has  been  the  result 
of  thus  bringing  together  peoples  with  two  entirely  dif- 
ferent standards?  While  it  has  raised  the  standard  of 
the  immigrant  and  lifted  the  average,  it  has  unquestion- 
ably lowered  our  own  standard.  Moreover,  the  immigrant 
has  been  thrown  among  the  lowest  classes  of  Americans, 
and  thereby  has  not  come  into  contact  with  our  highest 
and  best  standards ;  so  often  our  effect  upon  him  has  not 
been  salutary. 

Crime. — It  is  often  stated  that  immigration  has  increased 
crime  and  has  helped  to  fill  our  prisons  and  penitentiaries ; 
but  statistics  do  not  prove  this,  at  least  not  to  a  degree 
at  all  alarming.  The  Special  Prison  Census  of  1904  shows 
that  at  that  time  23.7  per  cent  of  the  male  white  prisoners 
in  the  United  States  were  foreign-born  and  that  23  per 
cent  of  the  general  male  white  population  over  fifteen 
years  of  age  were  foreign-born.  In  1910  the  percentage 
of  the  male  white  prisoners  was  22.3  while  the  percentage 
of  our  population  had  slightly  increased.  The  percentage 


Immigration  115 

of  commitments  was  larger,  amounting  in  1910  to  26.1 
of  the  male  white  prison  population.  The  reason  for  this 
was  the  larger  number  of  minor  offenses,  like  drunken- 
ness, or  disorderly  conduct,  committed  by  the  immigrant. 
When  we  consider  that  crime  is  committed  by  men  in  the 
prime  of  life,  and  that  the  immigrant  is  away  from  home, 
possibly  completely  separated  from  all  home  ties,  and 
necessarily  passing  through  a  crisis  in  his  life  career,  and 
that,  in  addition,  he  is  thrown  into  our  worst  environ- 
ment, we  must  admit  that  the  showing  is  far  from  alarm- 
ing. Statistics  for  those  of  foreign  parentage  are  not  so 
favorable,  thus  reflecting  upon  our  influence  upon  the 
immigrant.  Since  the  children  of  the  immigrants  are 
often  reared  in  our  worst  slums  under  inadequate  control 
of  their  parents,  this  condition  can  be  easily  explained. 
The  parents  are  away  working  all  day — the  mother  fre- 
quently as  well  as  the  father — and  the  children  are  left 
to  shift  for  themselves.  Even  when  the  parents  are  at 
home,  the  children  frequently  look  down  upon  them  be- 
cause of  their  ignorance  and  uncouth  appearance.  The 
children  can  speak  English ;  the  parents  often  never  learn 
it;  because  of  this  difference  the  child  is  more  advanced 
in  many  ways  than  the  parent,  and  so  instead  of  respect- 
ing the  father  and  mother  the  child  often  despises  them. 
Having  as  a  consequence  no  guide  in  life,  the  child  easily 
drifts  into  the  habits  of  those  around  him. 

Some  races  are  much  more  addicted  to  crime  than 
others.  The  Irish  lead  all  nationalities.  In  1910  they 
made  up  10.1  per  cent  of  the  foreign-born  population,  yet 
they  furnished  26.9  per  cent  of  their  crimes.  These  crimes 
were  mostly  of  a  petty  nature,  particularly  drunkenness 
and  disorderly  conduct.  The  Italians,  on  the  contrary, 
commit  the  serious  offenses,  leading  all  nationalities  in 
assaults.  In  1904,  14.4  per  cent  of  the  major  offenders 
in  the  United  States  were  Italians,  while  the  Italians  made 
up  but  4.7  per  cent  of  our  population.  In  New  York  City 
26.9  per  cent  of  those  convicted  of  crimes  of  personal 
violence  in  1907-8  were  Italians,  yet  the  Italians  made 
up  only  seven  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  city. 


116  Immigration 

The  Black  Hand  is  another  serious  problem  with  the 
Italians.  Slavs,  especially  the  Poles,  are  inclined  to  crimes 
of  personal  violence,  particularly  when  under  the  influ- 
ence of  liquor.  But  after  all,  considering  the  facts  that 
the  immigrant  is  in  a  new  country;  that  he  is  ignorant 
of  the  laws,  which  are  different  from  the  ones  to  which 
he  has  been  accustomed;  that  he  is  cut  loose  from  all 
home  ties;  and  that  he  has  an  unequal  chance  in  court, 
being  before  an  unsympathetic  judge  and  having  little 
chance  for  defense,  and  so  being  more  liable  to  convic- 
tion, it  cannot  be  proved  that  the  immigrant  is  criminal 
in  tendency. 

Illiteracy. — Immigration  has  contributed  largely  to  the 
illiteracy  situation  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the 
Northern  states.  Of  the  4,931,905  illiterates  in  the  United 
States  in  1920,  1,242,572  were  native  whites,  1,763,740 
were  foreign-born,  and  1,842,161  negroes.  In  the  South- 
ern states  illiteracy  is  increased  largely  because  of  the 
negro,  but  in  the  North  it  is  almost  wholly  caused  by 
immigration,  as  shown  in  table  on  p.  117.  According  to 
the  1920  census,  11  per  cent  of  the  foreign-born  white  pop- 
ulation in  the  United  States,  ten  years  of  age  or  older, 
cannot  speak  English,  as  compared  with  22.8  per  cent  in 
1910.  The  more  important  reasons  for  the  decrease  are 
probably  the  result  of  our  effort  since  the  war  to  prepare 
immigrants  for  citizenship,  and  the  effects  of  the  literacy 
test  in  rejecting  those  least  liable  to  learn  our  language. 
The  largest  percentage  is  found  in  Arizona,  51.9;  Texas, 
51.7 ;  and  New  Mexico,  49.4,  due  to  the  proximity  of  Mexico. 

The  children  of  immigrants  learn  our  language;  the 
grandchildren  of  these  immigrants  are  on  a  par  with  chil- 
dren of  native  ancestry.  We  find  that  where  the  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  among  immigrants  is  high,  the 
amount  of  money  brought  in  is  low;  in  fact,  if  we  in- 
verted the  above  column  we  should  have  almost  the  pro- 
portionate standing  in  regard  to  economic  conditions.  We 
find  illiteracy  much  greater  among  females  than  among 
males,  owing  to  the  position  of  woman  in  Europe.  Women 


Immigration 


117 


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118  Immigration 

acquire  our  language  much  more  slowly  than  men,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  men  mingle  more  with  Americans  and 
are  thus  compelled  to  learn  the  language.  This  is  noticed 
in  the  Southwest  where  most  of  the  Mexican  men  can 
speak  English — at  least  enough  to  be  understood — and 
few  women  can  either  speak  or  understand  any  English. 
Illiteracy  is  really  quite  a  serious  problem,  for  it  makes 
assimilation  difficult.  If  an  immigrant  can  read  and  write 
his  own  language  it  is  much  easier  to  learn  our  language ; 
if  he  cannot,  learning  our  language  is  a  laborious,  if  not 
impossible,  task.  If  an  immigrant  never  learns  to  read 
or  write  English,  the  newspapers,  magazines,  and  books 
never  appeal  to  him;  thus  the  channels  of  approach  are 
nearly  all  closed  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  teach  such  an 
immigrant  our  customs  and  habits,  to  say  nothing  of  our 
ideals  and  standards  of  living.  These  are  the  reasons 
why  a  literacy  test  was  so  strongly  urged  and  a  law  re- 
quiring it  finally  passed,  in  spite  of  the  vetoes  of  our 
chief  executives. 

Poverty. — Since  the  immigrant  comes  to  America  in  the 
prime  of  life,  when  he  is  at  his  greatest  earning  capacity, 
and  since  he  is  usually  single,  other  things  being  equal 
we  should  expect  few  paupers  among  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  immigrant  is  handicapped  by  ignorance,  es- 
pecially of  our  language,  and  so  is  often  in  need  of  tem- 
porary assistance.  Because  he  is  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ladder  economically,  if  he  fails  to  get  work  or  loses  his 
position  after  he  gets  one,  he  is  in  a  bad  condition  and 
has  to  fall  back  upon  public  or  private  charity.  If  he 
has  a  family,  he  is  badly  handicapped,  and  even  if  he  is 
working  he  finds  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  support  his 
family  because  of  our  high  prices  and  because  of  the  low 
wages  which  he,  as  a  result  of  his  ignorance  and  lack 
of  skill,  is  forced  to  accept. 

In  1907-8,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Immigration,  out  of  288,395  inmates  of  our  charitable 
institutions  in  the  United  States,  60,025  were  foreign-born 
—about  21  per  cent.  Yet  the  foreign-born  make  up  but 
15  per  cent  of  our  population.  In  New  York  the  per- 


Immigration  119 

centage  was  not  so  high,  being  only  10.4  per  cent  for 
inmates  of  charitable  institutions.  These  figures  are  not 
at  all  bad  but  they  do  not  reveal  the  real  problem  by 
any  means.  Many  of  our  immigrants,  who  never  apply 
for  public  aid,  are  in  desperate  financial  condition.  Often 
their  children  are  sent  to  school  without  any  food,  or 
at  best  with  insufficient  food  to  permit  the  carrying  on 
of  successful  school  work.  It  has  been  estimated  at 
various  times  that  from  25  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  of 
the  school  children  in  such  cities  as  New  York  and 
Chicago  have  insufficient  food  to  keep  up  vitality  to  a 
point  that  will  enable  them  to  do  their  school  work 
in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  an  undue  percentage  of 
these  are  children  of  the  foreign-born.  Often  both  parents 
are  away  working,  and  the  child  gets  either  no  lunch 
or  an  insufficient  one.  This  condition  is  more  serious 
than  adult  poverty,  for  it  means  a  stunted  and  degenerate 
second  generation.  It  is  like  the  problem  of  crime  in  one 
respect:  it  is  the  second  generation  that  slumps.  Being 
thrown  upon  the  streets,  the  children  lose  their  inde- 
pendence and  do  not  have  the  energy  and  thrift  of  their 
parents;  they  feel  less  responsibility  for.  making  both 
ends  meet.  They  also  become  stunted  and  degenerate 
physically  because  of  their  surroundings,  the  lack  of  nu- 
tritious food,  the  absence  of  fresh  air,  and  the  want  of 
healthful  conditions  in  general. 

These  conditions  have  been  caused  by  the  ignorance 
and  poverty  of  their  parents,  who  live  in  the  worst  tene- 
ments in  the  cities,  shut  their  windows  at  night,  and 
crowd  together  in  an  awful  fashion.  Since  the  second 
generation  is  physically  unfit  and  lacking  in  moral  stamina, 
it  is  quite  ready  to  fall  back  upon  charity.  This  is  a 
problem  that  can  be  dealt  with;  it  can  be  largely 
eliminated  by  proper  building  codes,  which  forbid  the 
erection  and  use  of  tenements  that  do  not  allow  fresh 
air,  by  proper  inspection  in  regard  to  overcrowding,  and 
by  greater  attention  to  the  physical  welfare  of  the  chil- 
dren. Proper  child-labor  legislation  and  its  enforcement 
will  eliminate  much  of  this  trouble.  A  minimum  wage 


120  Immigration 

4> 

will  enable  the  parents  to  earn  more  and  thus  provide 
better  food,  clothing  and  shelter.  The  condition  that  now 
exists  is  largely  the  fault  of  our  civilization  rather  than 
that  of  the  immigrant. 

However,  with  the  change  in  immigration  from  north- 
ern to  southern  Europe,  we  do  find  a  difference  in  the 
attitude  towards  the  receipt  of  help.  We  find  that  the 
Italians,  especially  those  from  southern  Italy,  and  par- 
ticularly those  from  Naples,  expect  help  to  a  certain 
extent.  They  hear  of  our  methods  of  dispensing  charity 
and  come  here  with  an  expectancy  of  "receiving  aid.  Upon 
arrival  they  quickly  learn  of  the  institutions  and  associa- 
tions that  aid  in  poor  relief.  Whereas  in  former  days  the 
immigrants  expected  to  carve  out  their  destinies  by  their 
own  efforts,  the  newer  ones  are  not  so  strongly  imbued 
with  this  sentiment.  On  the  whole,  the  pauperism  of  the 
immigrant  has  been  greatly  exaggerated ;  but  the  poverty 
situation,  bringing  with  it  a  degenerating  effect  upon  the 
second  generation,  probably  has  been  minimized. 

Miscellaneous  Social  Effects. — The  decay  of  religious 
sentiment  with  its  resulting  disregard  for  the  Sabbath  has 
already  been  mentioned.  Another  thing  to  be  noticed 
is  the  change  in  the  religious  faith  with  the  change  of 
the  source  of  immigration — from  the  Protestant  to  the 
Catholic.  Our  recent  immigrants  come  almost  entirely 
from  Catholic  countries.  This  in  itself  is  no  problem  al- 
though we  find  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  whole  more 
conservative  than  the  Protestant  and  opposing  many  of 
our  reforms,  particularly  woman  suffrage  and  prohibi- 
tion. Its  adherents  have  a  much  lower  regard  for  woman 
than  Protestants  have.  The  Catholic  Church  as  a  rule 
encourages  large  families  in  order  to  increase  the  number 
of  adherents;  but  generally  these  large  families  come  in 
the  classes  that  are  least  able  to  care  for  them  and  so 
tend  to  increase  poverty.  On  the  other  hand  the  Catholic 
Church  has  a  splendid  organization  for  poor  relief. 

The  problem  of  educating  the  immigrant  has  already 
been  touched  upon,  especially  the  reluctance  of  immi- 
grants to  send  their  children  to  school,  and  their  prac- 


Immigration  121 

tice  of  taking  their  children  from  school  as  soon  as  the 
law  will  allow.  Another  phase  of  this  problem  is  the 
difficulty  of  appealing  to  the  child  while  he  is  in  school. 
He  is  not  familiar  with  our  conditions,  traditions  and 
history;  so  the  teacher  finds  great  difficulty  in  linking 
the  teachings  of  the  school  to  the  home  life  of  the  child. 
The  teachers  are  usually  women,  and  because  the  immi- 
grant has  a  low  regard  for  woman,  the  child  of  the 
immigrant  has  little  respect  for  the  teacher.  On  the  whole, 
the  immigrant  child  is  a  serious  problem.  The  problem 
is  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that  poor  nutrition, 
insufficient  clothing,  and  inadequate  sanitation  make  the 
immigrant  child  unfit  physically  to  respond  to  the  efforts 
of  the  teacher. 

Immigration  has  upset  the  proportion  of  the  sexes.  For 
a  considerable  number  of  years  about  two-thirds  of  the 
immigrants  were  males;  in  1907  the  proportion  was  929,- 
976  males  to  355,373  females.  More  men  than  women 
return  to  Europe,  and  in  1920  there  were  7,528,322  foreign- 
born  white  males  as  against  6,184,432  females.  This  has 
been  the  principal  cause  for  the  existing  plurality  of  males 
in  the  United  States,  there  being  106  males  to  100 
females  in  1910  and  104  males  to  100  females  in  1920.  We 
ordinarily  look  upon  immigration  as  one  of  the  principal 
causes  for  the  increase  of  our  population,  but  we  should 
remember  that  the  immigrant  began  to  come  in  large 
numbers  in  the  40 's,  since  which  time  the  birth-rate  of 
the  native  population  has  steadily  declined.  Some  writers 
argue  from  this  fact  that  if  we  had  had  no  immigration  our 
population  would  have  increased  just  as  rapidly,  that  the 
birth-rate  of  the  native  fell  off  in  proportion  to  the  immi- 
gration, and  that  as  the  native  was  forced  to  compete  with 
the  immigrant,  the  birth-rate  fell  off  on  that  account. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  birth-rate  might  have  diminished 
anyway  and  immigration  may  have  been  the  means  of 
keeping  up  the  increase  in  our  population.  Some  students 
go  so  far  as  to  present  statistics  proving  that  the  South 
has  increased  as  rapidly  without  immigration  as  the  North 
has  with  it;  but  because  of  errors  in  the  statistics  and 


Immigration 

because  other  causes  have  been  at  work  such  comparisons 
are  omitted  here.  Since  immigration  has  forced  the  native 
up  in  the  economic  scale  and  since  the  upper  classes 
usually  have  fewer  children,  immigration  may  have  been 
a  cause  in  the  decline  in  the  native  birth-rate;  but  even 
if  this  is  true  the  writer  fails  to  see  what  loss  the  country 
has  suffered.  However  this  is  all  a  matter  of  theory, 
and  we  have  nothing  definite  to  show  that  immigration 
has  affected  our  birth-rate,  although  in  all  probability  it 
has  done  so. 

It  is  only  natural  that  we  should  find  immigration 
causing  a  social  disturbance,  for  the  introduction  of  any 
new  element  brings  about  maladjustments  in  any  society ; 
it  is  to  be  expected  that  difficulties  of  assimilation  should 
be  encountered.  If  immigration  is  well  distributed,  as- 
similation is  accelerated;  but  if  the  immigrants  settle 
in  communities  where  they  are  more  or  less  isolated  and 
where  they  are  not  compelled  to  come  into  contact  with 
the  natives,  assimilation  is  much  more  difficult  and  of 
course  is  greatly  retarded. 

Political  Effects  of  Immigration. — The  immigrant  of 
yesterday  has  to  a  great  extent  become  the  citizen  of 
to-day;  the  immigrant  of  to-day  will  to  a  great  extent 
become  the  citizen  of  to-morrow.  In  1920  of  the  6,928,452 
foreign-born  white  males  twenty-one  years  of  age  and 
older  47.8  per  cent  were  naturalized  and  16.1  per  cent 
had  taken  out  their  first  papers.  Of  the  5,570,268  foreign- 
born  white  females  of  the  same  age  52  per  cent  were 
naturalized  and  1.4  per  cent  had  taken  out  first  papers.2 
In  the  total  white  population  twenty-one  years  of  age  or 
over  22.7  per  cent  were  immigrants  and  11.3  per  cent 
naturalized  immigrants  in  1920.  Thus  in  the  white  popu- 
lation of  voting  age  there  were  148  naturalized  immi- 

2  The  reason  for  the  differences  here  is  due  to  the  ruling  that  the 
wife  of  a  naturalized  voter  is  also  classed  as  naturalized,  while  the 
wife  of  one  who  has  only  taken  out  first  papers  is  still  classed  as  an 
alien.  For  an  unmarried  female  the  process  of  naturalization  is  the 
same  as  for  a  man.  A  widow  or  divorced  wife  retains  the  status  of 
her  former  condition  but  if  still  an  alien  can  become  naturalized  in 
the  same  manner  as  a  man. 


Immigration  123 

grants  to  every  1000  natives.  The  proportion  of  those 
becoming  naturalized  varies  greatly  according  to  the 
nationality,  ranging  from  74.4  per  cent  among  the  Welsh 
to  5.5  per  cent  among  the  Mexicans.  For  the  five  coun- 
tries furnishing  the  largest  number  of  immigrants,  the 
percentages  naturalized  were  as  follows :  Germany  73.6 ; 
Ireland  66.1;  Russia  42.1;  Italy  29.6;  and  Poland  28.9. 
In  general  all  Northern  European  countries  rank  high, 
Slavic  nations  medium,  and  those  from  Southern 
Europe  low.  The  danger  lies  in  the  fact  that  when  the 
immigrant  becomes  a  citizen,  not  having  behind  him  the 
traditions  of  the  native,  he  does  not  realize  the  value 
of  the  ballot.  This,  coupled  with  his  ignorance  of  Ameri- 
can political  methods,  makes  him  an  easy  mark  for  the 
ward  politician  and  the  party  boss.  He  was  in  the  past 
to  a  great  extent  under  the  control  of  the  saloon-keeper. 

The  ballot  too  often  is  simply  the  means  of  adding  to 
his  income,  as  is  expressed  in  a  letter  of  the  Italian 
writing  to  his  friend  in  Palermo,  referred  to  by  Professor 
Ross  :3  ' '  Come  over  here  quick,  Luigi,  this  is  a  wonderful 
country.  You  can  do  anything  you  want  to,  and  besides 
they  give  you  a  vote  you  can  get  two  dollars  for."  This 
is  one  reason  why  such  political  machines  as  Tammany 
in  New  York  and  Thompson's  organization  in  Chicago 
are  able  to  control  the  vote  of  the  naturalized  citizens 
and  to  swing  this  vote  in  any  way  they  wish.  While 
cities  with  a  low  percentage  of  immigrants  have  in  many 
eases  as  corrupt  governments  as  some  which  have  a  much 
higher  percentage,  the  immigrant  vote  is  not  so  intelligent 
as  the  native  vote  and  therefore  can  be  exploited  more 
readily. 

Some  nationalities  have  a  fondness  for  politics;  this  is 
especially  true  of  the  Irish,  who  are  our  leading  politi- 
cians, and  who  swing  the  vote  of  their  nationality  almost 
as  a  body.  For  the  past  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  it 
has  been  almost  impossible  in  Boston  to  elect  a  mayor 
or  in  fact  almost  any  other  official  who  was  not  Irish,  or 
of  Irish  sympathies.  The  Poles  in  Chicago  resemble  the 

*  Century  Magazine,  January,  1914. 


124  Immigration 

Irish  in  Boston  in  their  political  methods,  though  they 
are  not  so  powerful.  The  immigrant  does  not  concern 
himself  much  over  our  issues  or  principles,  but  votes 
rather  for  his  friends ;  such  machines  as  Tammany  control 
him  because  they  see  to  it  that  he  is  befriended  when 
in  need.  While  by  no  means  alarming,  the  immigrant 
forms  a  somewhat  dangerous  element  in  politics. 

Legislative  Restrictions  Upon  Immigration. — Congress 
recognized  no  problem  in  immigration  till  1875,  although 
long  before  that  time  the  public  began  to  feel  that  there 
was  a  problem;  legislation  is  always  slower  than  public 
opinion.  In  1875  Congress  passed  an  act  excluding 
women  imported  for  immoral  purposes,  convicts,  and  con- 
tract laborers. 

In  1882  the  first  general  Act  controlling  immigration 
was  passed.  This  Act  ordered  the  exclusion  of  persons 
liable  to  become  public  charges,  such  as  lunatics,  idiots, 
and  those  without  means  of  taking  care  of  themselves.  It 
imposed  a  fine  upon  any  steamship  company  and  captain 
importing  such,  and  obligated  the  steamship  company  to 
give  them  free  transportation  back  to  the  country  of 
embarkation. 

The  Act  of  1891  added  to  these  classes  those  afflicted 
with  loathsome  or  contagious  diseases,  polygamists,  and 
anyone  whose  passage  was  paid  by  another,  unless  af- 
firmatively shown  that  he  was  not  otherwise  objection- 
able. It  prohibited  the  extensive  advertising  of  the  steam- 
ship companies,  limiting  the  advertising  to  the  publishing 
of  the  fares  and  the  dates  of  sailing.  This  provision, 
however,  has  become  a  dead  letter  because  of  lack  of  any 
jurisdiction  in  foreign  countries.  This  Act  provided  for 
the  exclusion  within  one  year  of  those  immigrants  who 
had  entered  unlawfully,  and  of  those  who  had  become 
public  charges  from  causes  operative  prior  to  their  land- 
ing. A  head  tax  of  fifty  cents  to  pay  for  the  expenses 
of  inspection  and  relief  of  the  immigrant  upon  landing 
was  levied. 

The  Act  of  1893,  after  providing  for  some  administra- 
tive changes,  increased  the  head  tax  to  two  dollars,  and 


Immigration  125 

added  to  the  excluded  lists  procurers,  anarchists,  and 
those  assisted  by  others  than  friends ;  and  it  extended  the 
examination  to  cabin  passengers.  In  1897  this  head  tax 
was  raised  to  four  dollars. 

The  Act  of  1903  was  much  broader.  After  reducing  the 
head  tax  to  two  dollars,  it  reclassified  the  excluded  classes 
as  follows:  (1)  idiots,  (2)  insane,  (3)  epileptics,  (4)  per- 
sons who  have  been  insane  within  five  years  prior  to 
arrival,  (5)  persons  who  have  had  two  or  more  attacks 
of  insanity  at  any  previous  time,  (6)  paupers,  (7)  persons 
likely  to  become  public  charges,  (8)  professional  beggars, 
(9)  persons  afflicted  with  a  dangerous  or  loathsome  dis- 
ease, (10)  persons  convicted  of  some  felony  or  misde- 
meanor involving  moral  turpitude  (not  including  those 
convicted  of  purely  political  offenses),  (11)  polygamists, 
(12)  anarchists,  or  persons  who  believe  in  or  advocate 
the  overthrow  by  force  or  violence  either  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  of  all  governments,  or  of 
all  forms  of  law ;  or  who  favor  the  assassination  of  public 
officials;  (13)  prostitutes,  (14)  persons  who  procure  or 
attempt  to  bring  in  prostitutes  or  women  for  purposes 
of  prostitution,  (15)  those  whose  passage  has  been  paid 
by  others,  unless  it  is  affirmatively  proved  that  they  do 
not  belong  to  any  other  of  the  excluded  groups — or  that 
they  have  been  sent  for  by  relatives  or  friends  in  this 
country.  No  mention  was  made  of  contract  laborers  be- 
cause the  Acts  of  1885  and  1888  on  this  subject  still  held 
good. 

In  addition  to  this  legislation  the  treaty  arrangements 
with  China  during  the  80 's  excluded  Chinese  immigration. 

The  Act  of  1907  kept  most  of  the  features  of  the  Act 
of  1903;  it  defined  a  little  better  the  excluded  classes, 
again  raised  the  head  tax  to  four  dollars,  and  included 
the  contract  labor  clause.  It  provided  for  the  return  of 
an  alien  within  three  years  who  was  found  in  a  house 
of  prostitution  or  who  engaged  in  prostitution  as  a  busi- 
ness. It  also  provided  a  fine  of  $5,000,  or  five  years' 
imprisonment,  for  bringing  in  women  for  prostitution; 
$1,000  fine  for  bringing  in  contract  laborers;  $1,000  fine 


126  Immigration 

for  attempting  to  procure  admission  for  anyone  who  was 
subject  to  exclusion;  $100  fine  on  the  steamship  company 
for  every  immigrant  denied  admission,  and  $300  fine  on 
the  steamship  company  for  each  excluded  immigrant  de- 
nied transportation  back.  It  also  contained  elaborate 
specifications  as  to  the  system  of  inspection,  examination 
and  detention  of  those  waiting  special  examinations,  and 
adequate  provisions  for  the  deportation  of  those  excluded 
later. 

By  the  Act  of  February,  1917,  the  famous  literacy  test 
over  which  there  has  been  so  much  contention  was  added 
to  the  qualifications  for  entrance  into  this  country.  This 
provision  had  been  previously  passed  by  Congress  a  num- 
ber of  times,  but  had  met  with  presidential  vetoes  at  the 
hands  of  Cleveland,  Taft,  and  Wilson.  After  it  had  been 
vetoed  twice  by  President  Wilson,  the  necessary  two- 
thirds  vote  was  obtained  in  Congress  and  it  became  a  law. 
This  Act  excludes  from  the  United  States  all  aliens  over 
sixteen  years  of  age  who  cannot  read  the  English 
language  or  some  other  language  or  dialect.  Provision 
is  made,  however,  for  the  admission  of  an  illiterate  wife, 
father,  mother,  grandfather,  grandmother,  or  unmarried 
or  widowed  daughter  of  an  admissible  alien.  The  father 
or  grandfather  must  be  at  least  fifty-five  years  of  age, 
and  otherwise  admissible.  While  a  literacy  test  will  not 
exclude  criminals  or  vicious  persons,  it  is  hoped  that  it 
will  stop  a  large  part  of  the  undesirable  immigration.  It 
will  be  unjust  at  times  and  may  keep  from  our  shore 
many  who  would  make  desirable  citizens,  but  on  the  whole 
it  will  keep  away  a  far  greater  number  who  would  make 
undesirable .  additions.  Some  minor  provisions  were  also 
included  in  this  Act. 

The  Act  of  May,  1921,  restricting  immigration  in  any 
given  month  or  year  to  3  per  cent  of  the  number  of 
foreign-born  residents  of  each  nationality,  as  recorded  by 
the  census  of  1910,  is  described  on  pages  127  and  130.  This 
has  proved  the  most  effective  method,  thus  far,  of  limiting 
actual  numbers,  though  it  is  open  to  criticism  as  to  the 
peoples  themselves,  who  shall  be  admitted. 


Immigration  127 

In  addition  to  these  restrictions,  many  laws  have  been 
passed,  beginning  as  early  as  1819,  looking  to  protection 
of  the  immigrant,  to  prevention  of  overcrowding  of  ves- 
sels, to  provision  of  sufficient  air  space  and  proper  food, 
to  protection  against  swindlers,  etc.  Some  acts  were  even 
passed  to  encourage  immigration.  Not  until  1882  did  the 
Federal  government  assume  control  of  immigration,  it 
having  been  previously  left  to  the  state  of  entry.  Until 
that  time  no  state  had  passed  laws  against  immigration 
because  it  was  not  previously  considered  really  detrimen- 
tal ;  many  states  had  passed  laws  encouraging  it. 

Tine  Sterling  Bill.— This  bill,  introduced  April  27,  1921, 
deserves  special  study,  as  it  offers  the  most  carefully 
thought  out,  concrete  proposals  for  regulating  immigration 
that  have  thus  far  been  prepared.  In  Sec.  2  is  the  follow- 
ing declaration:  ''It  is  hereby  declared  to  be  the  policy 
of  the  United  States  to  admit  annually  only  so  many 
law-abiding  immigrants  of  any  national  or  racial  group 
as  may  be  capable  of  being  so  employed  as  not  to  en- 
danger the  normal  American  standards  of  living,  labor 
and  wages,  and  as  may  be  also  capable  of  becoming  as- 
similated by  communities  of  English-speaking  type,  and 
wholesomely  incorporated  into  the  body  politic  within  a 
reasonable  length  of  time,  such  capacity  of  employment 
and  assimilation  to  be  determined  by  the  Immigration 
Board  in  the  light  of  experience  with  other  immigrants 
of  the  same  or  related  national  and  racial  groups."1 

As  a  result  of  heavy  fines  assessed  on  steamship  com- 
panies, the  latter  now  hold  examinations  upon  embarka- 
tion and  as  a  result  few  applicants  have  recently  been 
refused  admission  on  this  side.  Some  of  the  laws  work 
injustice  at  times,  especially  the  contract  labor  laws, 
which  exclude  the  best  as  well  as  the  poorest,  for  those 
holding  good  positions  in  Europe  will  not  give  them  up 
until  they  are  assured  better  positions  here.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  opera  singers,  teachers  and  other  profes- 
sional peoples,  and  exceptions  have  to  be  made  for  them. 
But  it  still  keeps  out  much  skilled  labor. 

1  See  footnote  under  ' '  excluded  classes, ' '  page  130. 


128  Immigration 

Proposed  Legislation. — Increase  of  the  Head  Tax. — An 
increase  in  the  amount  of  the  head  tax  is  generally  con- 
demned, for  it  would  only  be  a  means  of  making  the  new 
arrival  poorer;  it  moreover  would  be  a  tax  upon  those 
least  able  to  pay — a  policy  which  is  contrary  to  the  present 
theory  of  taxation. 

A  Definite  Amount  of  Money. — If  each  immigrant  were 
required  to  possess  a  minimum  amount  of  money  upon 
arrival,  it  would  tend  to  insure  the  newcomer  against 
falling  into  immediate  distress.  It  would  make  coming 
to  this  country  more  difficult,  and  so  would  be  a  check 
on  the  undesirable  class.  Yet  wealth  is  never  a  test  of 
desirability.  Such  a  requirement  could  easily  be  evaded, 
for  a  friend  would  often  lend  the  required  amount.  Yet 
if  one  had  such  credit  it  would  denote .  character,  since 
credit  would  not  be  extended  to  dishonest  persons.  Be- 
sides, all  immigrants  do  not  require  the  same  amount,  for 
those  living  with  relatives  and  friends  can  more  easily 
subsist  and  get  work.  On  the  whole,  however,  such  a 
requirement  would  prevent  much  misery  and  distress. 

Physical  Test. — If  a  physical  test  is  imposed  it  should 
be  uniform  in  its  requirements.  But  it  would  be  difficult 
to  set  a  standard  that  would  suit  the  different  races.  It 
would  require  a  great  amount  of  work.  It  might,  how- 
ever, be  much  better  than  a  financial  test.  At  any  rate 
it  would  help  maintain  the  physical  efficiency  of  our  race. 

Consular  Inspection. — Several  years  ago  a  demand  for 
consular  inspection  was  very  popular.  Under  this  system 
there  would  be  inspection  on  the  other  side  carried  on 
by  the  American  consuls.  There  are  several  objections 
to  such  a  plan.  It  would  require  a  great  increase  in  our 
consular  service.  It  would  result  in  a  great  rush  just 
before  the  sailing  of  a  vessel.  It  would  necessitate  the 
employing  of  many  clerks,  some  of  whom  would  likely 
be  incompetent.  There  would  be  endless  chance  for  graft. 
Moreover,  consuls  would  not  always  be  experts,  such  as 
we  have  at  Ellis  Island.  In  addition,  there  would  have 
to  be  a  second  inspection  at  this  end  to  see  if  the  immi- 
grants had  consular  certificates  and  to  see  if  the  consular 


Immigration  129 

certificates  were  true  or  false.  This  would  be  a  double 
expense.  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  plan  reveals  distinct 
advantages.  We  have  no  way  on  this  side  of  the  ocean 
of  looking  up  an  immigrant's  character,  antecedents,  or 
even  criminal  record.  Such  facts  would  be  readily  ac- 
cessible to  the  consul.  The  scheme  would  add  no  new 
restrictions,  and  in  many  cases  would  save  the  prospective 
immigrant  much  trouble,  time,  and  expense.  At  present, 
however,  the  steamship  companies  examine  them  so  as 
not  to  bring  any  who  would  be  liable  to  be  rejected. 

Mental  Test. — Different  sorts  of  mental  tests  have  been 
recommended,  but  questions  arise  as  to  what  tests  would 
be  used  and  how  they  could  be  put  into  practice.  It 
would  be  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  get  a  fair  test. 

Require  Certificates  of  Good  Character. — A  requirement 
of  certificates  of  good  character  would  only  lead  to  fraud. 
Who  has  ever  seen  any  person,  no  matter  how  disrepu- 
table or  dishonest,  who  was  not  able  to  get  a  pocket  full 
of  such  certificates?  Frequently  the  more  dishonest  he 
is,  the  better  the  certificates  are. 

Discriminate  Against  Certain  Nations. — It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  we  exclude  certain  nations,  such  as  the 
Italians,  Eussians  and  other  Slavic  nationalities,  just  as 
we  did  the  Chinese.  This  plan  would  lead  to  international 
troubles.  Unless  such  exclusion  could  be  done  by  means 
of  treaties  with  the  countries  that  did  not  want  their 
citizens  to  emigrate,  it  would  be  a  bad  international  policy. 

Add  to  the  Excluded  Classes. — We  do  not  admit  an- 
archists who  believe  in  no  government.  Why  not  exclude 
socialists  who  believe  in  the  government  doing  every- 
thing? One  is  at  one  extreme,  the  other  at  the  opposite. 
This  would  never  do,  for  the  socialistic  program  is 
generally  recognized  as  having  good  features.  We  argue 
against  socialism  because  of  the  inability  to  practice  it, 
owing  to  the  imperfections  of  man;  but  forbidding  the 
socialist  would  be  reactionary  and  a  backward  step. 

Shall  we  exclude  the  unskilled  laborer?  But  we  often 
need  him — in  fact  have  needed  him  badly  since  the  war — 
and  he  is  often  very  desirable  as  a  citizen.  "Exclude  the 


130  Immigration 

'birds  of  passage.'  '  But  how  are  we  going  to  determine 
how  long  a  man  intends  to  remain  here,  or  how  soon  he 
is  liable  to  change  his  mind?  " Exclude  those  without 
families."  But  those  without  families  are  least  liable  to 
fall  upon  charity.  They  are  thus  better  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves.  "Exclude  the  aged."  But  there  are 
very  few  of  them  and  they  generally  have  relatives  to 
care  for  them.  Then  too  the  aged  do  not  have  small 
children  dependent  upon  them,  to  suffer  by  their  poverty 
if  they  fall  into  distress.1 

Exclude  AIL — Total  exclusion  would  be  far  too  drastic. 
It  would  be  entirely  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  Constitu- 
tion and  the  ideals  of  the  nation,  for  we  have  always 
stood  as  the  home  of  the  free  and  the  haven  of  the 
oppressed. 

Compel  Steamship  Companies  to  Furnish  Better  Accom- 
modations.— Ideally  such  a  regulation  seems  good,  but  it 
would  only  increase  the  expenses  of  transportation  and  so 
would  add  to  the  burden  of  those  coming. 

Arguments  for  restriction  rest  upon  the  following  con- 
siderations : 

1.  Industrial. — Whether  or  not  we  consider  immigration 
a  benefit  here  depends  largely  upon  whether  we  are  capi- 
talists or  laborers.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  employer 
of  labor,  immigration  is  a  great  benefit,  for  it  furnishes 
an  abundance  of  cheap  labor,  and  labor  which  is  easily 
controlled.  This  enables  the  development  of  great  indus- 

1  The  Immigration  Restriction  Law  of  May  19,  1921,  operative  until 
June  30,  1924,  defines  ' '  alien ' '  as  any  person  not  native  born  or 
naturalized,  exclusive  of  Indians  not  taxed,  and  citizens  of  the  islands 
under  United  States  jurisdiction.  It  limits  the  number  of  aliens 
admissible  to  3  per  cent  of  the  number  of  the  particular  nationality 
in  each  case  resident  in  the  United  States  as  shown  by  the  1910 
census.  Exceptions  are  government  employees,  their  families  and 
servants,  visitors  for  pleasure  or  business,  others  merely  going  through 
the  country  as  a  convenient  route,  one-year  residents  of  Canada, 
Newfoundland,  Cuba,  Mexico,  or  Central  or  South  American  countries, 
and  children  (under  eighteen)  of  United  States  citizens.  Not  more 
than  20  per  cent  of  each  nationality  to  be  admitted  in  any  one 
month.  Preference  to  be  given  to  relatives  and  fiancees  of  the  United 
States  citizens,  of  applicants  for  citizenship,  and  of  persons  eligible 
to  citizenship  by  service  in  United  States  military  or  naval  forces 
between  April  6,  1917  and  November  11,  1918,  inclusive. 


Immigration  131 

trial  concerns  and  big  business  in  general.  It  makes  pos- 
sible the  development  of  new  industries — industries  which 
might  not  otherwise  be  built  up.  From  the  standpoint 
of  labor,  immigration  is  decidedly  injurious,  because  it 
upsets  the  balance  of  supply  and  demand  by  increasing 
the  supply  of  labor  without  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  demand  for  it,  and  consequently  keeps  wages  from 
increasing  as  rapidly  as  they  otherwise  would.  It  causes 
unemployment,  resulting  in  poverty  and  suffering.  When 
immigration  was  checked  in  1915  by  the  World  War,  the 
unemployment  problem  in  the  United  States  ceased  to 
exist,  for  as  soon  as  business  adjusted  itself  to  new  condi- 
tions there  was  practically  no  unemployment.  All  workers 
who  were  efficient  and  able  were  employed.  While  immi- 
gration usually  has  forced  the  native  worker  up  in  the 
industrial  struggle,  it  has  sometimes  kept  him  down,  that 
is,  if  he  was  unprepared  to  rise. 

2.  Political. — Whether  the  addition  to  our  voting  popu- 
lation will  bring  new  blood  into   our  political  life,  or 
whether  it  will  form  an  element  which  will  undermine 
our  institutions,  is  the  question  from  the  political  stand- 
point.   The  naturalized  voter  does  not  have  back  of  him 
that  which  the  native  voter  has  and  does  not  look  upon 
the  ballot  in  the  same  way;  hence  he  is  more  easily  con- 
trolled by  corrupt  party  machines.    This  condition  is  the 
most  serious  in  the  larger  cities,  although  probably  not 
nearly  so  dangerous  as  it  is  sometimes  pictured.     Often 
coming  from  a  country  where  he  has  had  no  experience 
in   popular    government,    the    immigrant    is    much    less 
capable  of  using  the  ballot  than  the  native,  even  if  his 
ideals  and  motives  be  as  high. 

3.  Social. — Socially  the  problem  is  whether  immigration 
is  detrimental  to  our  social  life — whether  it  adulterates 
our  ideas  of  morality,  increases  crime,  adds  to  the  num- 
bers of  our  dependent  classes,  and  lowers  our  standard 
of  living.     The  introduction  of  any  new  element  neces- 
sarily causes  confusion,  and  if  the  newer  element  is  a 
decidedly  lower  one  and  insists  on  remaining  compact, 
then  the  problem  is  complicated.     Earlier  immigration 


132  Immigration 

was  assimilated  without  much  difficulty ;  but  recent  immi- 
gration has  been  entirely  different.  Then,  too,  our  facili- 
ties for  assimilation  have  changed;  our  cheap  land  is 
gone,  and  we  are  becoming  an  industrial  rather  than  an 
agricultural  country.  To  assimilate  the  new  immigration 
requires  hard  work;  the  problem  will  not  solve  itself. 
The  present  problems  are  as  much  our  making  as  that 
of  the  immigrant.  When  we  realize  this  fact  and  set 
ourselves  systematically  to  the  task  of  making  citizens 
out  of  the  immigrants,  then  we  can  hope  for  better  results. 
It  will  require  the  cooperation  of  our  schools,  churches, 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  settlements,  and  in  fact  all  our  social 
organizations  to  achieve. 

4.  Biological. — Whether  the  infusion  of  new  blood  will 
be  for  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  our  race  bio- 
logically is  an  unsettled  question.  A  mongrel  race  is 
ordinarily  considered  superior  to  a  thoroughbred  race, 
provided,  of  course,  that  the  mongrel  race  is  made  up  of 
the  best  blood  of  the  several  races.  If  it  is  made  up  of 
the  left-overs,  of  the  degenerates  of  several  races,  then  the 
result  will  be  poorer  than  any  of  the  races  taken  singly. 
Have  we  received  the  best  blood  or  the  poorest?  If  we 
get  the  best  blood  of  Italy,  Austria,  and  the  Slavic  coun- 
tries, that  best  may  be  inferior  to  the  blood  of  the  Amer- 
ican, which  comes  from  the  finest  blood  of  northern 
Europe.  So  the  intermingling  of  the  races  from  southern 
Europe  may  be  bad,  even  if  we  receive  their  strongest 
elements.  The  success  of  the  American  nation  in  the  past 
has  been  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  we  were  made  up  of  the 
strongest  elements  of  the  hardiest  nations  of  Europe; 
and  we  are  loath  to  lose  this  advantage  by  admitting  to 
citizenship  races  that  are  inferior  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  they  have  been  crushed  and  down-trodden  for  cen- 
turies. 

Future  Policy. — The  war  caused  many  Americans  to 
change  their  attitude  towards  immigration,  at  least  there 
have  developed  a  general  awakening  to  the  gravity  of  the 
problem  and  a  desire  for  a  policy  of  greater  restriction 
of  immigration.  There  has  always  been  opposition  to 


Immigration  133 

immigration  by  individuals  and  classes,  like  the  labor 
unions.  Some  have  urged  restriction  from  sound  motives, 
such  as  the  filling  up  of  America  and  the  taking  up  of 
our  desirable  land,  but  most  of  the  opposition  has  been 
because  of  personal  or  class  reasons,  rather  than  because 
of  the  realization  of  any  great  national  or  social  danger. 

The  war  showed  that  our  "melting  pot"  had  not  always 
produced  the  type  of  American  citizens  that  we  had 
imagined  it  was  doing.  When  our  draft  law  became 
operative  we  found  thousands  of  men  in  our  training 
camps  who  could  neither  read  nor  understand  English 
and  who  knew  nothing  of  American  ideals.  Not  only  did 
they  not  know  the  causes  and  objects  of  the  war  but  many 
did  not  even  know  that  there  was  a  war.  While  our 
settlement  workers  and  students  of  sociology  knew  that 
such  conditions  existed  the  general  public  was  not  aware 
of  it.  This  caused  many  to  think  and  to  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  immigration  must  be  further  restricted. 
The  physical  examination  of  the  drafted  men  revealed 
to  us  some  startling  physical  defects  and  showed  that 
immigration  was  having  a  bad  effect  upon  the  general 
physique  of  the  nation. 

In  addition  the  war  upset  our  economic  and  industrial 
organization  and  we  found  out  that  immigration  only 
increased  the  problem.  This  was  especially  true  in  regard 
to  unemployment.  Since  the  war  there  have  been  from 
three  to  five  million  workers  unemployed  at  times,  and  if 
we  permit  more  laborers  to  come  into  the  country  they 
will  merely  add  to  the  number  of  those  out  of  work. 

Not  only  are  we  interested  in  the  quantity  of  immigra- 
tion, but  the  quality  is  being  more  seriously  considered. 
We  have  for  some  time  recognized  the  general  undesir- 
ability  of  immigration  from  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe, 
but  this  is  being  more  seriously  considered  since  nearly 
all  of  the  present  immigrants  are  coming  from  those  sec- 
tions. After  the  war  was  over,  immigration  began  again 
with  a  rush.  Our  Congress  now  realizes  the  seriousness  of 
the  problem,  and  we  can  expect  to  see  more  or  less  drastic 
restriction  of  immigration  in  the  future. 


134  Immigration 


READING  REFERENCES 

FAIRCHILD,  H.  P.,  Immigration. 

HALL,  P.  F.,  Immigration. 

JENKS,  J.  AND  LAUCK,  W.  J.,  The  Immigrant  Problem. 

COMMONS,  J.  R.,  Races  and  Immigrants  in  America. 

MAYO-SMITH,  R.,  Emigration  and  Immigration. 

WARNE,  F.  W.,  The  Immigrant  Invasion. 

STEINEB,  E.  A.,  On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant. 

STEINEB,  E.  A.,  The  Immigrant  Tide. 

BALCH,  EMILY  G.,  Our  Slavic  Fellow-Citizens. 

FOERSTER,  R.  F.,  Italian  Emigration  of  Our  Times. 

FAUST,  A.  B.,  The  German  Element  in  the  United  States. 

FAIRCHILD,  H.  P.,  The  Greek  Immigration  to  the  United  States. 

COOLIDGE,  MARY  R.,  Chinese  Immigration. 

SEWARD,  G.  F.,  Chinese  Immigration. 

ROBERTS,  PETER,  The  New  Immigration. 

PARK,  R.  E.  AND  MILLER,  H.  A.,  Old  World  Traits  Transplanted. 

THOMAS,  W.  I.,  AND  ZNENEICKI,  F.,  Polish  Peasant  in  America. 

DAVIS,  PHILIP,  Immigration  and  Americanization. 

CLARK,  F.  E.,  Our  Italian  Fellow  Citizens. 

COPEK,  THOMAS,  The  Cechs  in  America. 

ABBOTT,  GRACE,  The  Immigrant  and  the  Community. 

DAVIS,  M.  M.,  Immigrant  Health  and  the  Community. 

REPORT,  Immigration  Commission,  1907. 

REPORT,  New  York  Commission  of  Immigration,  1909. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
URBAN  MIGRATION 

A  social  phenomenon  almost  as  old  as  the  history  of 
civilization  itself  is  the  movement  of  peoples  from  the 
country  to  the  city.  The  first  recorded  ones  were  in  the 
two  great  centers  of  civilization,  the  valleys  of  the  Nile 
and  the  Tigris-Euphrates,  in  both  of  which  sprang  up 
cities  of  importance.  Similar  centers  of  population 
developed  in  the  rich  river  valleys  of  India  and  China. 
These  places  were  thickly  settled  because  of  their  ability 
to  support  large  populations.  As  a  result  of  these  popu- 
lations trade  and  commerce  and  trade  centers  developed; 
these  in  turn  drew  still  larger  populations.  But  the  city 
of  ancient  times  was  primarily  a  military  stronghold  or 
a  place  of  worship,  and  therefore  an  elevated  position 
or  a  place  for  some  other  reason  difficult  of  access  was 
chosen  for  the  purpose  of  protection.  Jerusalem,  Athens, 
Tyre,  and  Rome  are  examples.  If  there  were  no  such 
inaccessible  place  at  hand,  great  walls  w,ere  constructed 
for  protection,  as  in  the  case  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  under  feudalism,  when  each 
baron  held  his  land  by  force  of  arms,  castles  were  built 
upon  rocky  heights.  Armed  bands  defended  these  castles 
and  over-awed  the  surrounding  territory.  Around  them 
people  settled  for  the  sake  of  protection — other  people 
than  the  knights,  retainers,  and  vassals  of  the  baron;  as 
a  result  cities  sprang  up.  Europe  is  full  of  such  castles 
and  cities.  Also  during  the  Middle  Ages  cities  arose 
along  trade  routes,  as  on  the  Danube,  for  the  purpose  of 
commerce,  which  became  trade  and  commercial  centers. 
Such  cities  as  Budapest,  Vienna,  Munich,  Frankfort, 
Cologne,  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  Ghent,  Hamburg, 
Bremen,  and  the  Italian  cities  of  Florence,  Genoa,  Pisa, 

135 


136  Urban  Migration 

and  Venice  are  of  this  type.  The  city  of  the  modern 
type  is  chiefly  an  industrial  or  commercial  center,  which 
did  not  flourish  to  any  appreciable  extent  until  the  in- 
dustrial revolution.  Thus  the  present-day  city  is  a  product 
of  industrial  development.  The  great  cities  of  Europe 
have  had  their  most  rapid  growth  since  the  industrial 
revolution,  although  their  history  goes  back  many  cen- 
turies before  that  time.  The  amount  of  such  increase 
during  the  nineteenth  century  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing table: 

City  Population  1800  Population  1901 

London  864,000  4,536,000' 

Paris 547,000  2,714,000 

Berlin   172,000  1,888,000 

Vienna 232,000  1,674,000 

The  great  increase  in  urban  population  as  compared 
with  rural  growth  did  not  manifest  itself  so  early  in  the 
United  States  as  in  Europe,  because  the  United  States 
remained  longer  an  agricultural  country.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  nineteenth  century  we  awoke  to  a  realization 
of  this  tendency,  and  many  students  of  the  question  have 
become  alarmed  over  it;  in  fact,  some  even  call  it  our 
most  serious  social  problem  to-day.  This  alarm  over 
urban  migration  is  by  no  means  a  new  thing  in  history; 
it  is  merely  new  with  us  because  we  are  a  young  nation. 
Xenophon  in  his  time  bewailed  a  similar  movement  and 
predicted  calamity ;  Varro  did  the  same ;  and  at  different 
times  European  statesmen,  especially  those  of  France, 
have  been  aroused  by  the  same  phenomenon.  Yet  the 
fact  that  similar  movements  and  consequent  fears  have 
existed  heretofore  does  not  minimize  the  fact  that  this 
migration  is  a  very  serious  matter  for  the  United  States. 

In  1800  there  were  in  the  United  States  only  six  cities 
with  a  population  of  over  8000,  and  they  contained  only 
4  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  country.  In  1900 
there  were  547  such  cities,  and  they  contained  32.9  per 
cent  of  the  country's  population;  and  in  1920  the  figures 
had  increased  to  924  and  43.8  per  cent  respectively. 

1  Greater  London  6,581,000. 


Urban  Migration  137 

While  the  rural  population  increased  only  5.8  per  cent 
from  1900  to  1910,  the  urban  population  had  increased 
34.8  per  cent.2  According  to  the  1920  census,  our  cities 
are  increasing  in  population  seven  and  a  half  times  as 
fast  as  the  rural  districts.  The  urban  population  increased 
at  a  rate  of  25.2  per  cent,  while  that  of  the  rural  districts 
was  3.4  per  cent.  More  than  one-half  of  our  entire  popu- 
lation (51.4  per  cent  of  the  105,710,620  persons  enum- 
erated) live  in  towns  and  cities  having  a  population  of 
over  2500.  One  thing  which  adds  to  the  seriousness  of 
the  problem  is  the  fact  that  this  increase  is  not  distributed 
over  the  entire  country,  but  is  confined  largely  to  a  few 
sections  of  the  country,  especially  the  New  England  and 
Middle  Atlantic  states,  which  are  already  overcrowded, 
and  the  North  Central  states,  which  in  the  past  have  been 
chiefly  agricultural — in  fact,  our  leading  agricultural 
states — but  are  now  becoming  urban. 

The  1920  census  revealed  the  following  ratios  of  urban 
population :  Rhode  Island  97.5 ;  Massachusetts  94.8 ;  New 
York  82.7 ;  and  New  Jersey  78.4.  In  comparison  with  these 
the  most  urban  of  European  countries  before  the  World 
War  revealed  the  following:  England  and  Wales  78.0; 
Scotland  77.0;  Germany  57.4;  France  41.0;  and  Holland 
40.5. 

We  do  not  usually  look  upon  the  United  States  as 
thickly  populated,  and  as  a  nation  it  is  not ;  yet  there 
are  a  few  sections,  such  as  Rhode  Island,  which  are  more 
thickly  populated  than  almost  any  other  political  division 
in  the  world.  In  1920  Rhode  Island  had  566.4  persons 
per  square  mile,  Massachusetts  followed  with  479.2  and 
New  Jersey  with  420,  while  the  District  of  Columbia  had 
7292.9.  To  get  some  idea  of  the  growth  of  cities  one  has 
only  to  travel  by  train  from  Boston  to  Washington,  D.  C., 
by  way  of  Providence,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
Baltimore,  where  for  500  miles  there  is  a  never-ending- 
chain  of  cities ;  in  fact,  it  is  difficult  at  times  to  tell  where 
one  city  ends  and  the  next  one  begins. 

3  Places  of  2500  or  over  are  classed  here  by  the  United  States  Census 
Bureau  as  urban. 


138  Urban  Migration 

Between  1910  and  1920,  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Michigan,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Nevada 
actually  decreased  in  rural  population. 

Causes  of  Urban  Migration. — The  following  are  perhaps 
the  leading  causes  for  urban  migration: 

1.  Rapid    Industrial    Growth    of    the    Country. — The 
modern  city  is  largely  the  product   of  industry.     The 
establishment  of  industries  has  created  an  increased  de- 
mand for  labor,  and  as  a  result  laborers  have  flocked  to 
the  city.    Not  only  are  they  offered  higher  money  wages 
than   are    obtainable    on   the   farm,   but   they   are    also 
promised  work  throughout  the  year,  a  thing  which  is 
almost  impossible  on  the  farm,  because  of  the  dependence 
of  farm  labor  upon  the  seasons.    Not  only  has  this  attrac- 
tion enticed  the  farm  hand  from  the  farm,  but  to  an 
even  greater  extent  it  has  drawn  the  immigrant  to  the 
city.    In  the  early  history  of  our  country  the  farm  offered 
greater  inducements  to  the  immigrant,  but  with  present 
high  prices  for  land  and  intricate  modern  methods  of 
farming,  the  immigrant  can  seldom  go  to  the  farm  even 
if  he  so  desires.     While  the  farm  may  offer  higher  real 
wages  and  greater  economic  returns  ultimately,  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  the  farm  laborer  or  renter  to  realize  this  fact. 

2.  Commercial  Growth  of  the  Country. — Similar  to  the 
industrial  development  has  been  the  commercial  growth. 
Present  methods  of  industry  demand  wholesale  offices  in 
our  cities  for  selling  the  goods  manufactured;  they  re- 
quire  also   middlemen  and   retail   establishments.     The 
result  is  a  demand  for  increased  facilities  for  transpor- 
tation; hence  railway  centers  arise.    There  must  be  more 
salesmen,  buyers,  shipping  clerks,  railway  employees — 
all  the  immense  army  of  men  and  women  employed  in 
modern  business.     This  demand  has  attracted  the  young 
and  enterprising  from  the  rural  districts,  not  altogether 
because  of  higher  money  wages,  but  because  of  the  ,hope 
of  advancement  and  future  success  in  business.    Although 
the  average  person  would  probably  do  better  in  the  small 
place,  the  few  with  marked  ability  have  an  opportunity 


Urban  Migration  139 

to  rise  to  greater  heights  than  would  have  been  possible 
in  any  rural  community.  While  there  are  more  blanks 
in  the  lottery,  the  prizes  are  greater;  while  more  people 
fail  than  in  the  country,  they  are  forgotten  or  are 
obscured  by  the  success  of  a  few. 

3.  Change  in  Agricultural  Methods. — As  the  demand  for 
labor  in  the  city  has  increased,  the  relative  demand  in 
the  country  has  decreased.  The  invention  of  new  ma- 
chinery, especially  modern  gang  plows,  reapers,  and 
binders,  has  enabled  one  person  to  do  work  which  form- 
erly took  five  or  ten  men.  The  demand  for  agricultural 
products  has  constantly  increased,  it  is  true,  but  not  in 
proportion  to  the  decrease  in  the  demand  for  rural  labor. 
This  has  caused  the  farm  hand  to  migrate.  No  longer 
is  there  any  cheap  land,  such  as  there  was  in  early  days 
of  the  country.  Land  has  increased  tremendously  in 
value.  Farm  land  in  such  states  as  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
and  Missouri  now  costs  from  $100  to  $200  an  acre,  and 
often  more.  This,  coupled  with  the  increased  cost  of 
machinery,  horses,  and  cattle,  requires  a  capital  of  several 
thousands  of  dollars  in  order  to  start  farming  success- 
fully. Even  if  credit  be  obtainable,  interest  rates  bring 
in  an  overhead  charge  of  several  hundred  dollars  a  year. 
This  situation  not  only  prevents  immigrants  and  other 
laborers  from  going  to  the  farm;  it  even  drives  the 
farmer's  sons  away  from  the  farm.  If  the  son  is  enter- 
prising and  independent,  and  desires  to  marry  and  settle 
down,  he  does  not  care  to  wait  until  his  father  dies 
and  the  old  farm  comes  to  him,  or  (if  there  are  several 
sons)  is  divided  up.  Also  he  may  not  only  dislike  to 
remain  at  home  but  may  even  be  crowded  out  because 
of  a  large  family. 

On  account  of  these  conditions  and  the  lessening  de- 
mand for  labor  upon  the  farm,  many  workers  migrate 
who  would  be  willing  to  remain  upon  the  farm,  if  oppor- 
tunities were  equal.  The  fact  that  a  decreasing  propor- 
tion of  our  population  is  needed  upon  the  farm  is  not  so 
serious  in  itself,  unless  the  decrease  be  too  rapid.  The 
seriousness  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  most  enterpris- 


140  Urban  Migration 

ing  and  independent  are  the  ones  who  migrate,  thus  leav- 
ing the  less  energetic  upon  the  farm. 

4.  The  City  Is  More  Alluring. — Not  only  from  economic 
but  from  social  reasons  the  city  is  more  attractive;  in 
fact,  if  the  question  should  be  carefully  analyzed,  it 
might  be  shown  that  social  reasons  are  more  important 
than  economic  ones.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned: 

(1)  Excitement. — The  spirit   of  adventure  draws  the 
youth  to  the  city  in  much  the  same  manner  that  the  frontier 
attracted  the  venturesome  and  daring  in  our  pioneer  days. 
Then  people  left  the  settlements  to  seek  fortunes  across 
the  Appalachians,  regardless  of  the  dangers  from  wild 
beasts  and  Indians  and  of  the  hardships  to  be  endured. 
In  a  like  way  the  city  attracts  the  same  element  to-day. 
The  noise  and  bustle  are  alluring;  there  are  more  things 
to  be  seen  and  heard.    Life  is  not  so  dull  and  monotonous 
as  in  the  country.    The  loneliness  and  isolation  are  sup- 
planted by  stir  and  excitement.    While  life  is  harder  in 
the  city,  and  a  living  more  difficult  to  wrest  from  society 
than  in  the  country,  opportunities  for  advancement  are 
more  frequent  if  one  is  alert,  and  enthusiasm  and  hope 
drive  one  on  to  greater  efforts. 

(2)  Recreation. — In  former  days  rural  communities  had 
recreational  opportunities,  such  as  husking,  paring,  and 
quilting  bees,  log-rollings,   house-raisings,   spelling   con- 
tests, picnics,   and  parties;  but  unfortunately  as  these 
entertainments  became  things  of  the  past  little  was  in- 
troduced to  take  their  places.     On  the  other  hand,  the 
city  has  furnished  a  never-ending  series  of  amusements 
in  the  way  of  baseball  games,  theaters,  parks,  museums, 
prize-fights,    wrestling    matches,     bowling,    pool     halls, 
electric  parks,  and  more  recently  moving  picture  shows. 
In  this  way  life  in  the  city  is  more  alluring  than  in  the 
country.    The  modern  generation  demands  recreation,  and 
it  is  only  natural  that  the  city  should  attract  by  these 
recreations. 

(3)  Intellectual   Advantages. — The    city   offers   better 
schools,  more  of  them,  and  a  greater  variety  of  training. 
It    offers    greater    advantages    in   the   way    of   libraries, 


Urban  Migration  141 

although  exceptions  should  possibly  be  made  of  the  New 
England  states,  where  every  little  town  has  a  public 
library  of  some  kind,  generally  containing  the  world's 
best  literature.  Art  galleries  and  natural  history  museums 
are  found  only  in  large  places.  While  magazines  and 
newspapers  are  obtainable  in  most  rural  places,  they  are 
not  so  available  in  the  country  as  in  the  city.  The  city 
pulpits  are  better  supplied  than  country  churches  be- 
cause they  can  command  the  best  talent.  This  does  not 
seem  to  exert  a  corresponding  influence,  however,  be- 
cause city  churches  draw  a  smaller  proportion  of  the 
population  than  do  country  churches. 

(4)  Superior  Comforts. — Many  comforts  are  available 
to  a  much  greater  extent  in  the  city,  such  as  steam  heat, 
electricity,  gas,  and  facilities  for  shopping.     These  are 
especially  attractive  to  farmers  who  have  made  a  fortune 
sufficient  to  enable  them  to  retire,  and  they  appeal  to 
the  younger   generation,   especially  to   those   who  have 
traveled  about  somewhat  or  have  been  to  college.     The 
city  also  offers  more  attractive  conditions  of  labor  to  both 
men  and  women.    The  housewife  has  less  work  to  do,  and 
the  man's  working  day  is  several  hours  shorter  than  in 
the  country,  thus  giving  more  time  for  recreation  and 
amusement. 

(5)  Class  Consciousness. — There  has  always  been  a  line 
of  discrimination  drawn  between  the  city  dwellers  and 
those  who  live  in  the  country.     The  farmer  is  more  or 
less  looked  down  upon  as  uncouth  and  ignorant  (at  least 
it  has  been  so  in  the  past).     The  city  person  sneers  at 
the  small  town  inhabitant;  this  is  shown  in  our  urban 
newspapers  and  our  magazines.     Our  educational  train- 
ing fits  especially  for  city  life,  rather  than  for  country 
life — so  much  so,  that  it  educates  away  from  the  farm. 
We  are  now  trying  to  remedy  this  defect,  but  in  the  past 
as  soon  as  a  person  received  an  education  he  generally 
migrated  to  the  city,  because  he  considered  that  he  had 
outgrown  his  former  class. 

(6)  All  Activities  Center  About  the  City. — Not  only  do 
industry,  commerce,  and  education  center  about  the  large 


142  Urban  Migration 

city,  but  all  our  activities  are  becoming  more  and  more 
centralized.     Our  colleges  are  being  established  i:    large 
centers,  magazines  are  published  there,  and  even  .agri- 
cultural   societies    generally    have    their    central    offices 
located  in  some  large  city.    The  city  is  like  a  whirlpool  or 
maelstrom  around  which  our  whole  life  whirls,  and  be- 
cause of  this  force  of  attraction  the  city  draws,  or  hr-"1 
drawn,  the  most  efficient,  active,  and  energetic  from  t^o' 
country.     The  whole  process  is  simply  the  evidence  of  a" 
tendency  of  modern  times. 

Forces  Operating  Against  This  Migration. — Against 
these  forces  counterbalancing  forces  are  beginning  to 
operate.  The  automobile  is  doing  wonders  toward  mak- 
ing farm  life  more  attractive  and  putting  it  into  closer 
touch  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  rural  free  delivery 
of  mail,  parcels  post,  and  rural  telephones  have  all  done 
their  share  in  this  direction,  but  the  automobile  possibly 
surpasses  them  all.  Good  roads  are  being  built  in  all 
sections  of  the  country,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  coming 
of  the  automobile.  As  we  shall  see  later,  better  school 
buildings  are  being  constructed,  and  more  useful  methods 
of  instruction  introduced.  The  recently  established  sys- 
tem of  government  rural  credits  promises  much  in  the 
way  of  enabling  young  men  to  get  started  in  farming. 

Probably  the  greatest  force  of  all  is  the  increased  pros- 
perity of  the  farmer  during  the  past  few  years.  Prices 
obtained  for  farm  products  are  higher  than  formerly, 
and  give  every  indication  of  maintaining  a  higher  level 
than  in  the  past.  With  the  increased  crowding  of  cities 
such  a  fact  would  seem  inevitable.  All  this  means  more 
money  for  the  farmer,  and  consequently  promises  greater 
comforts,  more  labor-saving  machinery,  more  books, 
magazines,  automobiles,  phonographs,  pianos,  better  edu- 
cation for  his  children,  and  more  of  the  luxuries  of  life. 
During  the  past  few  years  many  farmers  have  prospered 
enormously ;  in  fact,  to-day  the  farmer  is  among  the  best 
situated  individuals  in  society,  and  the  future  bids  fair 
to  do  even  better  by  him  than  the  past. 

Our  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations  have 


Urban  Migration  143 

done  much  in  instructing  farmers  how  to  get  the  largest 
returmnii'om  their  farms.  Co-operation  is  the  greatest 
hope  of  the  future  in  winning  a  larger  share  of  return  to 
the  producer.  Co-operative  methods  have  been  success- 
ful in  parts  of  Europe  in  the  marketing  of  farm  products, 
especially  butter,  bacon,  cheese,  and  eggs.  In  Denmark 
cooperation  has  turned  a  poor  country  into  one  of  the 
mc|st  prosperous  lands  in  the  world.  The  idea  is  being 
introduced  into  the  United  States  and  wherever  tried 
among  farmers  for  the  marketing  of  products  has  almost 
invariably  met  with  splendid  success.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  regard  to  the  managing  of  grain  elevators, 
the  selling  of  milk  and  creamery  products,  and  the 
marketing  of  fruits  (as  illustrated  by  the  California  Fruit 
Growers'  Association).  As  a  result,  co-operation  is  now 
being  rapidly  adopted  in  the  marketing  of  all  manner  of 
farm  products.  This,  coupled  with  scientific  farming, 
will  make  the  farmer  financially  prosperous  and  as  a 
result  many  of  the  causes  of  urban  migration  will  dis- 
appear. 

Farming  is  no  longer  looked  upon  as  a  haphazard  busi- 
ness, in  which  any  person,  no  matter  whether  he  has  the 
ability  to  do  anything  else  or  not,  can  succeed.  Instead, 
it  is  being  considered  as  a  business  which  requires  modern 
business  methods  and  scientific  management,  and  these 
methods  are  being  applied.  The  farm  is  regarded  no 
longer  as  a  place  for  the  ne'er-do-wells  but  for  the  most 
energetic  and  enterprising,  and  it  is  attracting  the  latter 
class  because  of  the  chance  it  offers  of  increased  pros- 
perity. The  ideal  condition  has  not  been  reached  by  any 
means,  and  there  are  still  many  unsolved  problems. 
Some  of  them  we  shall  now  consider. 

Problems  of  the  Country. — Rural  problems  are  not  so 
sensational  and  appealing  as  are  the  problems  which  we 
find  in  cities,  such  as  child  labor  and  immorality.  Con- 
ditions are  not  so  bad  as  in  our  city  slums.  We  find  in 
the  country  no  tenement  houses,  sweatshops,  or  bad 
sanitary  conditions.  Poverty,  while  often  present,  never 
has  the  pitiful  features  of  poverty  in  cities  for  the  simple 


144  Urban  Migration 

reason  that  the  farmer  produces  his  own  food  and  hence 
generally  has  sufficient  to  prevent  hunger.  Fuel  is  usually 
obtainable,  and  few  suffer  from  cold.  The  spirit  of 
neighborliness  has  not  disappeared  in  rural  sections  and 
the  needy  are  cared  for.  In  the  city  unemployment  means 
destitution  because  the  income  stops.  In  the  country 
one  is  ordinarily  his  own  employer;  even  if  one  is  de- 
pendent upon  daily  labor,  suffering  is  never  as  keen. 
Crime  is  infrequent  in  the  country  because  of  lack  of 
temptation  or  opportunity  to  commit  it.  If  a  person  does 
commit  a  crime  he  generally  goes  to  the  city  to  avoid 
detection.  While  the  small  town  produces  its  full  share  of 
the  vicious  and  criminal,  these  people  often  do  not  remain 
there,  although  some  small  towns  can  be  found  which 
are  veritable  hot-beds  of  vice  and  crime. 

On  the  whole  the  country  is  more  healthful,  but  it  is 
by  no  means  as  healthful  as  it  should  be.  The  country 
should — and  could — be  the  most  attractive  place  in  which 
to  live,  not  only  the  most  healthful  and  most  profitable, 
but  also  the  pleasantest  and  most  comfortable;  unfor- 
tunately it  often  falls  far  short  of  this.  The  sins  of  the 
country  are  ones  of  omission,  rather  than  of  commission. 
The  farmer  is  essentially  a  middle-class  person,  if  we  can 
safely  assign  any  social  group  to  such  a  class.  We  should 
not  expect  him  to  be  as  polished  in  manners,  as  neat  in 
dress,  as  careful  about  his  language,  or  as  highly 
educated,  as  the  lawyer  or  banker,  for  illustration;  but 
he  often  falls  below  middle-class  standards.  The  rural 
problem  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  charity,  but  of 
education,  of  thought  stimulation.  A  few  phases  of  it,  how- 
ever, demand  our  attention. 

1.  The  Country  School. — In  general,  country  schools  are 
not  the  equal  of  town  schools.  Not  only  is  the  equipment 
poorer  but  the  teachers  are  frequently  inexperienced  or 
poorly  trained  for  their  work.  They  receive  poor  pay, 
often  very  insignificant  salaries,  which  of  course  do  not 
attract  those  who  are  capable ;  hence  country  schools  are 
usually  taught  by  those  lacking  experience  or  by  those 
unable  to  obtain  positions  in  town  schools.  While  the 


Urban  Migration  145 

school  buildings  are  adequate  in  many  cases  they  are 
far  too  often  dilapidated  or  poorly  planned  in  regard  to 
ventilation,  lighting,  and  sanitation.  On  the  average, 
school  terms  are  shorter  than  terms  in  cities.  One  of 
the  most  serious  defects  is  the  overloading  of  the  country 
teacher  with  classes.  He  or  she  may  be  given  all  the 
grades,  and  so  is  unable  to  give  proper  attention  to  any 
of  them. 

There  are  frequently  too  few  students  in  the  school  to 
give  the  proper  stimulation  and  rivalry,  especially  in 
the  upper  classes,  which  sometimes  contain  only  one  or 
two  students.  There  are  many  rural  schools  with  too 
few  pupils  to  provide  any  sort  of  give-and-take  among 
them  or  to  permit  organized  play  of  any  kind.  Consoli- 
dation of  these  smaller  schools  offers  a  solution  for  many 
of  these  evils,  by  making  possible  larger  classes,  and 
more  and  better  teachers.  It  does  not  solve  all  the  diffi- 
culties, but  if  properly  handled  goes  a  long  way  towards 
the  solution  of  some.  The  old-time  country  school,  how- 
ever, is  a  thing  of  the  past,  because  the  conditions  of 
the  past  will  not  return ;  the  country  school  of  the  future 
must  meet  the  conditions  of  to-morrow. 

In  the  past  the  schoolhouse  served  as  a  social  center, 
but  it  has  not  been  so  used  of  recent  years.  The  old 
entertainments  have  been  outgrown  and  few  new  ones 
have  taken  their  place.  The  school  plant  should  be  used 
as  a  social  center,  where  entertainments,  such  as  moving 
picture  shows,  fairs,  and  track  meets  can  be  held,  and 
where  clubs  can  meet;  in  this  way  country  life  may  be 
made  more  interesting  and  helpful. 

The  curriculum  of  the  school  does  not  always  give  the 
rural  student  the  proper  training  needed  for  life,  as  it 
is  too  often  designed  to  fit  for  the  high  school,  which  in 
turn  fits  for  college;  thus  the  child  is  educated  away 
from  the  farm  instead  of  for  the  farm.  The  study  of 
scientific  agriculture  has  been  introduced  into  rural 
schools,  but  because  of  inexperienced  teachers  this  sub- 
ject is  generally  poorly  taught.  Agricultural  high  schools 
are  now  being  introduced,  but  are  few  in  number.  Their 


146  Urban  Migration 

aim  is  to  prepare  students  who  intend  to  follow  farming 
for  their  lifework,  and  to  give  them  such  other  training 
as  will  be  of  use  to  them  in  after  life.  The  education 
furnished  by  our  agricultural  colleges  is  steadily  improv- 
ing and  is  being  taken  advantage  of  more  and  more.  It 
is  doing  the  farmer  a  great  service. 

In  fine,  the  country  school  is  slowly  being  improved, 
but  before  it  can  be  made  what  it  should  be,  there  is 
need  of  an  entire  change  of  sentiment  in  most  communi- 
ties in  regard  to  the  importance  of  education  for  the 
farmer.  A  strong  desire  to  improve  all  such  facilities 
must  be  created. 

2.  The  Country  Church. — The  country  church  does  not 
play  the  part  in  the  life  of  the  rural  community  that  it 
formerly  did.  Like  the  rural  school,  it  has  not  adapted 
itself  to  new  conditions.  It  has  been  hard  hit  by  the 
migration  to  the  city  of  the  most  enterprising,  as  it  has 
thus  lost  its  leaders.  Salaries  are  low  and  ministers  are 
uncertain,  often  being  theological  students  or  else  men  who 
have  not  kept  up  with  the  times  and  so  cannot  stimu- 
late the  community  and  inject  new  life  into  it.  Generally 
rural  communities  are  over-supplied  as  to  buildings  and 
church  organizations,  but  the  churches  are  starved  as 
to  attendance  and  contributions.  Many  argue  that  there 
is  as  great  a  need  of  consolidation  of  churches  as  of 
schools,  but  attempts  at  reform  of  this  kind  have  not  met 
with  the  success  that  has  attended  such  moves  toward 
school  consolidation,  largely  because  of  denominational 
loyalty.  There  have  been  some  successes  in  this  line, 
however,  and  greater  progress  can  be  expected. 

The  country  church  is  not  the  social  center  that  it 
ought  to  be.  In  order  to  take  the  place  which  it  should 
hold  in  the  community,  it  must  attain  to  more  importance 
in  the  social  life  of  the  community.  This  is  being  done 
in  a  few  neighborhoods  but  needs  extension  in  order  to 
permit  it  to  function  as  it  should.  In  many  ways  the 
church  is  much  better  fitted  for  this  work  than  the  school,, 
although  in  other  respects  it  is  handicapped.  The  coun- 
try church  needs  better  pastors,  and  in  order  to  attract 


Urban  Migration  147 

them  it  must  be  willing  to  pay  salaries  sufficient  to 
guarantee  a  living  wage  for  a  competent  pastor  located 
in  the  community,  and  not  depend  upon  students  to  sup- 
ply one  or  two  Sundays  in  the  month.  What  the  country 
church  needs  is  new  life.  With  the  most  energetic  people 
going  to  the  city  it  is  difficult  to  give  it  this  life.  But 
with  the  return  of  prosperity  to  the  farm,  this  may  be- 
come easier. 

3.  Recreation. — The  lack  of  recreation  is  a  serious  mat- 
ter for  the  country  and  an  important  cause  of  urban 
migration.      When    the    sports    and    entertainments    of 
colonial  and  pioneer  days  were  outgrown,  new  ones  did 
not  come  to  take  their  place,  at  least  not  in  sufficient 
measure  to  fill  the  need.    Consequently,  country  life  has 
too   frequently  become   dull   and  uninteresting;   it   has 
degenerated  into  either  dull  drudgery  or  a  sordid  race 
for  wealth.     This  condition  has  had  a  depressing  effect 
upon  the  younger  generation  and  as  a  result  the  best 
have  too  frequently  left  the  farm.     The  country  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  and  the  Camp  Fire  organizations  are  doing  much 
to  meet  this  need.    The  automobile  enables  people  to  get 
away  from  home  but  too  often  makes  them  prefer  to 
remain  in  the  city  for  social  life  and  entertainment.    As 
suggested  before,  the  parcels  post,  telephone,  and  rural 
free  delivery  of  mail  are  making  country  life  less  isolated 
and  lonesome.     Rural  social  centers  probably  offer  the 
best  remedy  for  this  situation,  and  with  increased  finan- 
cial prosperity  the  country  will  provide  these  and  other 
recreational  facilities. 

4.  Wasteful  Methods. — One  of  the  greatest  detriments 
to  farming  to-day  is  the  lack  of  application  of  business 
methods.    There  is  a  tremendous  waste  and  leakage.  The 
farm  is  not  made  to  contribute  by  any  means  what  it  is 
capable  of  doing.    Yields  per  acre  for  all  sections  of  the 
country  are  far  below  what  they  should  be,  largely  be- 
cause of  the  failure  on  the  part  of  farmers  to  make  use 
of  modern  methods  of  agriculture.     Farmers  are,  how- 
ever, losing  their  distrust  of  "new-fangled"  methods  and 
"book    farming,"    and    are    learning    that    agricultural 


148  Urban  Migration 

colleges  and  experiment  stations  are  able  to  give  them 
much  help.  Lecturers  and  exhibition  trains  sent  out  by 
the  government  are  now  taken  advantage  of  by  the 
farmers,  whereas  at  first  they  were  scoffed  at.  As  has 
been  suggested,  the  farmer  in  the  past  failed  to  realize 
from  his  farm  products  as  he  should  have  realized,  be- 
cause middlemen  took  too  large  a  share.  Now  by  means 
of  organization  he  is  rapidly  learning  to  get  his  share 
and  to  reduce  the  middlemen's  profits  to  their  proper 
amount.  But  wasteful  methods  are  still  found  upon  the 
farm.  One  has  only  to  travel  through  almost  any  farm- 
ing section  to  see  valuable  farm  machinery  rusting  in 
the  fields,  expensive  binders,  mowing  machines,  and  plows 
being  left  where  they  were  last  used.  This  is  pure  waste, 
and  somebody  has  to  pay  for  this  added  cost  of  farming. 
American  farmers  are  criticized  for  allowing  land  to 
go  to  waste  by  never  cultivating  corners  and  by  using 
unproductively  large  amounts  of  land.  This  is  largely 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  average  farmer,  especially  in 
the  western  states,  has  more  land  than  he  can  effectively 
farm.  We  cannot  blame  him  for  buying  up  all  the  land 
that  he  can,  because  of  the  probability  of  its  increasing 
in  value  and  the  profit  resulting  on  his  investment,  but 
from  a  national  standpoint  the  practice  is  wasteful.  From 
time  to  time  we  hear  a  great  deal  about  tenant  farmers, 
absentee  owners  who  rent  their  farms,  and  the  fact  that 
renters,  having  no  permanent  interest  in  the  farm,  allow 
it  to  run  down,  and  follow  the  so-called  "skinning" 
method,  thus  ruining  the  soil  and  robbing  it  of  its  natural 
richness.  Much  of  our  soil,  especially  in  the  East,  has 
been  worn  out  in  the  past  by  just  such  methods,  but 
farmers  are  now  generally  becoming  acquainted  with 
methods  of  replenishing  the  needed  elements  in  the  soil 
by  proper  rotation  of  crops  and  the  use  of  fertilizers. 
Renters,  however,  will  not  use  these  methods  unless  com- 
pelled to  do  so;  neither  will  shiftless  and  shortsighted 
farmers.  This  phase  of  the  problem  is  possibly  receiving 
more  attention  than  many  others  and,  because  it  seriously 
affects  the  pocketbook  of  the  owner,  has  caused  him  to 


Urban  Migration  149 

pay  attention  to  it.  Our  farming  in  the  past  has  been 
too  extensive;  it  will  be  only  a  question  of  time  until 
more  intensive  methods  must  be  used,  in  order  that  this 
country  may  support  the  population  which  it  is  destined 
to  have  within  a  few  decades.  The  problem  of  waste 
is  one  which  only  education  can  solve. 

Other  phases  of  the  rural  problem  might  be  mentioned, 
but  these  just  discussed  are  probably  the  most  serious. 
The  whole  problem  is  one  of  isolation,  as  contrasted  with 
the  problem  of  congestion,  which  is  peculiarly  that  of  the 
city.  While  city  problems  have  been  before  us  for  decades, 
in  fact  some  of  them  for  centuries,  the  rural  problem  is 
one  that  has  attracted  our  attention  only  recently,  and 
therefore  has  not  had  the  remedial  measures  applied  to 
it  that  have  been  administered  to  the  problem  of  the 
city.  Despite  its  gravity,  because  of  lack  of  attention, 
it  will  in  all  probability  more  easily  lend  itself  to  solu- 
tion. But  at  present  it  cannot  be  ignored. 

Problems  of  the  City. — Migration  to  the  city  has  caused 
a  problem  in  the  country  by  reason  of  the  loss  of  the 
most  energetic,  and  at  the  same  time  has  created  in  the 
city  a  problem  of  congestion.  This  migration  from  rural 
districts  to  the  city  has  been  supplemented,  as  we  have 
seen,  by  the  tide  of  immigration,  in  addition  to  the 
natural  growth  in  population  of  the  city  itself.  Gillette 
estimates  the  growth  in  population  of  American  cities 
according  to  cause  as  follows:  to  immigration,  41  per 
cent;  to  rural  migration,  29.8  per  cent;  to  natural  in- 
crease, 21.6  per  cent;  to  the  incorporation  of  new  ter- 
ritory, 7.6  per  cent.3  This  congestion  of  population  has 
brought  in  many  problems,  many  of  which  are  just  the 
opposite  of  those  found  in  rural  districts.  Some  of  them 
are  the  following: 

1.  Transportation. — Even  the  use  of  city  streets  has  be- 
come a  problem.  Traffic  regulations  are  necessary,  not 
only  at  street  corners  in  the  directing  of  traffic,  but  also 
in  the  use  of  certain  streets  for  surface  cars,  and  prohibi- 
tion of  the  use  of  certain  vehicles  on  certain  streets,  and  in 

'Gillette,  John  M.;  Constructive  Bural  Sociology,  p.  86. 


150  Urban  Migration 

some  of  our  older  cities,  such  as  Boston,  the  designation 
of  some  streets  as  "one  way"  streets.  The  transporta- 
tion of  people  to  and  from  work,  as  well  as  the  handling 
of  shopping  crowds,  is  a  tremendous  problem,  entirely 
too  large  in  most  of  our  great  cities  for  the  street  rail- 
way systems  to  handle,  and  requires  the  addition  of 
elevated  or  subway  lines,  to  say  nothing  of  the  use  of 
suburban  trains  on  the  steam  lines,  which  in  many  places, 
especially  Boston,  handle  a  large  share  of  the  business. 
Other  phases  of  the  transportation  problem  are  the  need 
of  both  passenger  and  freight  terminals,  costing  vast 
sums  because  of  the  value  of  city  real  estate.  The  Grand 
Central  and  Pennsylvania  passenger  stations  in  New  York 
City  with  their  approaches  cost  the  New  York  Central 
and  Pennsylvania  systems  over  $250,000,000.  While  these 
are  our  most  expensive  stations,  the  establishment  of 
proper  terminals  in  all  cities  is  a  problem  involving  tre- 
mendous expense  and  much  engineering  skill.  Because 
of  their  monopoly  of  the  business,  street  railways  bring 
in  problems  in  regard  to  the  granting  of  franchises,  and 
their  regulation  and  control,  for  the  sake  of  proper  public 
service.  This  problem  of  transportation  leads  to  many 
other  problems,  such  as  high  rent  and  bad  housing  con- 
ditions. 

2.  Municipal  Government. — The  government  of  cities 
is  a  difficult  problem.  In  the  past,  many  of  our  Amer- 
ican cities  have  been  conspicuous  for  their  failings — 
to  such  an  extent  indeed  that  American  municipal  gov- 
ernment is  often  referred  to  as  one  of  the  worst  forms  of 
government  to  be  found  in  civilized  nations.  City  govern- 
ment in  this  country  has  been  notorious  for  its  graft; 
in  fact,  it  has  been  so  bad  in  most  cities  that  many  voters 
have  given  up  in  disgust  and  look  upon  any  change  in 
administration  as  simply  the  pushing  out  of  one  band  of 
grafters  by  another  fully  as  bad.  Many  cities  are  remedy- 
ing this  situation  by  the  adoption  of  the  commission  form 
of  government,  thereby  centralizing  responsibilit3r,  the 
lack  of  which  is  a  great  weakness  in  most  city  govern- 
ments. City  managers  are  also  being  introduced,  espe- 


Urban '  Migration 

cially  in  the  smaller  cities,  in  order  to  install  business 
methods  in  city  affairs.  Both  of  these  plans  have  improved 
the  situation,  but  there  is  still  room  for  improvement. 
The  greater  use  of  civil  service  rules  often  helps,  although 
recently  a  city  administration  in  Chicago  ignored  those 
holding  office  under  the  civil  service  laws  and  deposed 
them,  in  order  to  make  room  for  friends  and  followers. 
The  government  of  cities  at  best  is  a  difficult  problem, 
even  when  the  administration  attempts  really  to  serve 
the  people,  but  when  politicians  make  use  of  their  offices 
for  their  own  benefit,  the  difficulty  is  greatly  intensified ; 
hence  our  failure  in  the  past. 

3.  Health. — Formerly  the  death  rate  of  cities  was 
extremely  high,  and  while  this  condition  has  been  im- 
proved, on  the  average  it  is  still  above  that  of  rural 
communities.  The  congestion  of  population  naturally 
increases  the  liability  to  contagious  diseases,  especially 
in  the  public  schools.  The  danger  from  accident  is 
greater  because  of  the  rush  and  bustle  of  city  life. 
The  care  of  the  sick  and  injured  is  a  large  task  and 
requires  more  attention  than  in  the  country.  Private 
hospitals  are  unable  to  deal  with  the  problem  because 
of  the  poverty  of  many  people ;  private  medical  care  has 
to  be  supplemented  by  municipal  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries, by  the  institution  of  visiting  nurses  and  medical 
inspection  in  school,  and  by  the  establishment  of  free 
clinics. 

Purity  of  food  supplies  is  a  greater  health  problem 
than  in  the  country,  especially  in  regard  to  milk  and 
vegetables,  because  nearly  all  the  food  consumed  in  cities 
must  be  imported  from  the  country  and  requires  careful 
inspection  both  as  to  packing  and  transportation,  and 
its  sale.  This  matter  has  been  given  widespread  atten- 
tion and  in  many  places  is  very  effectively  handled.  The 
water  supply  is  also  a  matter  for  serious  consideration, 
the  water  often  being  brought  hundreds  of  miles  at  the 
cost  of  millions  of  dollars.  Unless  a  pure  source  is  tapped, 
the  drinking  water  has  to  be  filtered  by  the  city — a, 
process  which  is  both  difficult  and  expensive. 


152  Urban  Migration 

The  disposal  of  wastes,  especially  garbage,  street  sweep- 
ings and  sewage,  is  a  problem,  at  times  baffling  experts 
because  of  the  location  of  the  city.  The  cleaning  of  the 
streets  is  also  a  job  which  requires  much  expense  and 
constant  work.  The  whole  question  of  sanitation  for  a 
city  is  a  mammoth  one,  but  fortunately  one  which  is 
being  given  a  great  deal  of  attention.  Nothing  is  over- 
looked. Pests  such  as  flies,  mosquitoes,  and  rats  attract 
the  attention  of  boards  of  health. 

Because  of  the  scarcity  of  land  there  has  been  a  pre- 
mium upon  housing  space;  hence  there  has  crept  into 
our  cities  extremely  unsanitary  and  unhealthful  tene- 
ments, particularly  those  of  the  old  "dumb-bell"  type. 
Modern  building  codes,  when  properly  enforced,  protect 
the  city  against  this  evil.  The  city  is  troubled  with  many 
unhealthful  occupations  and  unwholesome  working  con- 
ditions, which  are  constant  menaces  to  the  health  of  the 
dwellers  in  all  our  cities.  The  whole  health  situation  in 
a  city  is  a  grave  one,  but  during  the  past  few  years  a 
great  deal  of  attention  has  been  paid  to  it  and  it  will 
have  still  more  in  the  future.  Even  now  in  some  respects 
the  city  is  more  healthful  than  the  country  because  of 
this  careful  oversight. 

4.  Protection. — As  we  shall  see  in  our  study  of  social 
maladjustment,  crime  and  vice,  like  poverty,  are  more 
prevalent  in  cities,  because  of  greater1  opportunity  and 
temptation.  Therefore  more  careful  protection  both  of 
lives  and  of  property  on  the  part  of  police  is  demanded. 
Our  city  police  forces  are  generally  so  huge,  and  brought 
into  such  close  contact  with  crime  and  politics,  that  they 
themselves  very  frequently  become  corrupt  and  inefficient. 
But  the  very  organization  of  police  forces  is  a  big  task. 
Protection  must  be  given  the  public  on  every  street 
corner  by  traffic  policemen ;  criminals  must  be  run  down ; 
and  the  public  in  general  must  be  protected  and  aided. 
The  danger  from  fire  is  great  and  all  of  our  cities  have 
expensive  and  more  or  less  efficient  fire  departments. 
The  labor  problem  is  more  difficult  in  the  city  than  in  the 
country  and  often  property  and  lives  have  to  be  pro- 


Urban  Migration 

tected  from  violence  in  times  of  labor  disturbance  in- 
volving public  service  corporations,  such  as  street  rail- 
ways. Vice  in  a  regrettable  amount  exists  in  every  city. 
Intemperance  used  to  be  greater  in  cities,  and  the  regula- 
tion of  the  liquor  business  was  always  difficult  and  a 
source  of  much  crime,  poverty,  and  corruption.  Even  the 
administration  of  justice  is  hindered  because  of  the  num- 
ber of  cases  requiring  special  courts,  such  as  juvenile  and 
domestic  relations  courts.  City  jails  are  also  necessary 
to  house  those  convicted  of  minor  crimes.  It  is  by  no 
means  a  small  undertaking  to  protect  the  lives,  property, 
health,  and  morals  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  large  city. 

5.  Education. — The  city  as  well  as  the  country  has  its 
educational  problem,  only  it  is  complicated  by  having  too 
many  children  to  care  for,  rather  than  too  few.  The 
number  is  often  so  great  that  the  capacity  of  school  build- 
ings is  inadequate;  it  increases  faster  than  the  city  is 
able  to  provide  facilities  for  accommodating  the  children. 
Sometimes  half-day  sessions  are  necessary.  The  Gary 
system  of  rotation  of  classes,  thus  making  use  of  all  the 
school  facilities  all  the  time,  is  the  best  method  devised 
thus  far  for  handling  the  situation.  An  attendant  evil 
has  been  the  development  of  too  much  machinery  and 
too  arbitrary  a  system  of  education,  putting  thereby  all 
sorts  of  children  through  the  same  process.  A  remedy 
is  found  in  a  variety  of  special  classes,  such  as  classes 
for  the  dull,  the  precocious,  the  truant,  and  the  phys- 
ically defective.  The  school  system  has  seldom  fitted  the 
student  for  his  future  work,  but  now  special  schools,  par- 
ticularly trade  schools,  are  established  in  order  to  add 
to  their  usefulness.  It  is  an  arduous  undertaking  to  run 
the  schools  of  any  large  city,  to  hire  efficient  teachers, 
maintain  discipline,  provide  proper  equipment,  supervise 
sanitation,  and  to  do  all  this  upon  the  amount  of  money 
appropriated  by  the  city.  Such  difficulties  are  by  no 
means  insurmountable;  in  fact,  they  are  usually  handled 
with  some  degree  of  efficiency;  they  are,  however,  prob- 
lems which  will  never  be  cqmpletely  solved,  because  new 


154  Urban  Migration 

conditions  will  constantly  arise.    Hence  the  educational 
phase  of  any  growing  city  will  always  require  attention. 

6.  Recreation. — The  city  also  has  its  recreation  problem ; 
it  is  not  so  much  the  lack  of  means  of  recreation,  as 
in  the  country,  but  the  placing  within  the  reach  of  all 
opportunities   for    healthful   recreation    and    wholesome 
pleasure.    It  means  the  control  and  regulation  of  the  com- 
mercialized forms  of  amusement,  such  as  theaters,  dance 
halls,  pool  rooms,  and  bowling  alleys;  the  construction 
of  suitable  playgrounds  for  the  children  of  the  crowded 
districts ;  and  the  providing  of  public  parks,  art  galleries, 
bathing  beaches,  public  baths,  and  social  centers.     The 
problem  is   two-fold — to   eliminate   questionable   and   de- 
grading sorts  of  recreation,  and  to  stimulate  and  provide 
opportunities  for  healthful  and  uplifting  forms.     It  is  a 
question  of  quality  rather  than  of  quantity. 

7.  Municipal   Ownership   and   Control. — Public   service 
industries,  with  the  growth  of  cities,  have  become  institu- 
tions of  much  importance,  especially  those  responsible  for 
systems  of  lighting,  gas  works,  street  railways,  and  the 
handling  of  food,  ice,  and  coal.     There  seem  to  be  two 
better    methods    of    managing    these    enterprises    than 
unrestricted  private  ownership,  which  often  does  not  work 
for  the  best  interests  of  the  public,  and  these  are  con- 
trol by  the  city  and  ownership  by  the  city.     Control  is 
generally  the  first  step  but  it  often  leads  to  ownership. 
Various  arguments  can  be  advanced  in  favor  of  each 
of  these  methods;  choice  between  them  depends  largely 
upon  the  place  and  conditions,  but  the  tendency  seems 
to  be  towards  the  ownership  on  the  part  of  the  city  of 
those  industries  which  are  vital  to  the  public  and  which 
are  of  such  a  nature  as  are  apt  to  lead  to  monopolies. 
Street  railways,  subways,  and  heating  and  lighting  plants 
have  been  acquired  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  owner- 
ship of  waterworks  and  sewerage  systems  has  been  taken 
over  by  cities.     This  policy  can  be  extended  but  slowly, 
because  of  the  inexperience  of  the  American  people  in 
the  governmental  management  of  industries,  and  because 
of  the  attitude  towards  public  ownership  ordinarily  shown 


Urban  Migration  155 

in  this  country;  but  there  seems  to  be  some  movement 
in  this  direction. 

8.  City  Planning. — At  first  cities  "simply  grew"  with- 
out much  idea  of  a  plan ;  but  because  they  did  not  always 
grow  in  a  manner  beneficial  to  succeeding  generations 
and  because  there  arose  populations  several  times  the  size1 
of  the  wildest  dreams  of  the  founders,  it  is  now  being 
realized  that  a  city  should  be  planned  for  the  future,  not 
only  with  reference  to  streets,  railroads,  and  public  build- 
ings, but  also  in  regard  to  practically  all  the  industries 
of  the  city.  The  new  plan  is  being  applied  in  most  cities  as 
they  look  towards  future  growth,  and  attempts  are  also 
being  made  to  rectify  the  mistakes  of  the  past.  It  is, 
however,  extremely  difficult  to  make  any  kind  of  accurate 
estimate  in  regard  to  the  future  development  and  growth 
of  any  given  city.  Some  have  a  steady  growth,  others 
grow  by  fits  and  starts,  still  others  do  not  grow  at  all, 
and  a  few  decline  in  population  and  importance. 

The  whole  problem  of  urban  migration,  while  needing 
the  attention  of  society,  is  by  no  means  hopeless.  Society 
needs  only  to  remedy  the  bad  features,  such  as  those 
indicated  above.  It  is  a  natural  development,  a  phase 
of  the  evolution  of  society;  it  is  merely  a  part  of  the 
world  movement  of  populations. 

READING  REFERENCES 

On  the  Rural  Problem : 

VOGT,  P.  L.,  Introduction  to  Rural  Sociology. 
GILLETTE,  J.  M.,  Constructive  Rural  Sociology. 
PHELAN,  JOHN,  Reading  in  Rural  Sociology. 
SIMS,  N.  L.,  The  Rural  Community. 
GALPIN,  C.  J.,  Rural  Life. 
GROVES,  E.  R.,  Rural  Problem  of  To-day. 
CARNEY,  MABEL,  Country  Life  and  the  Rural  School. 
ARP,  J.  B.,  Rural  Education  and  the  Consolidated  School. 
CARVER,  T.  N.,  Principles  of  Rural  Economics. 
CARVER,  T.  N.,  Selected  Readings  in  Rural  Economics. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.,  The  Country  Life  Movement. 
PLTTNKETT,  SIR  HORACE,  The  Rural  Life  Problem  in  the  United 
States. 


156  Urban  Migration 

BUTTERFIELD,  K.  L.,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress. 

BUTTERFIELD,    K.    L.,    The    Country    Church    and    the   Rural 
Problem. 

COULTER,  J.  L.,  Co-operation  Among  Farmers, 

CURTIS,  H.  S.,  Play  and  Recreation  for  the  Open  Country. 

CUBBERLEY,  E.  P.,  Rural  Life  and  Education. 

CUBBERLEY,  E.  P.,  The  Improvement  of  Rural  Schools. 

FOGHT,  H.  W.,  The  American  Rural  School. 

DAVIS,  E.  E.,  Twentieth  Century  Rural  School. 

FARWELL,  P.  T.,  Village  Improvement. 

EARP,  E.  L.,  Rural  Church  Serving  the  Community. 

EARP,  E.  L.,  The  Rural  Church  Movement. 

HAGGARD,  H.  RIDER,  Rural  Denmark  and  Its  Lessons. 

Report  of  the  Country  Life  Commission. 

Publications  of  the  American    Sociological   Society,  Vol.   XI, 
"The  Sociology  of  Rural  Life." 

WILSON,  W.  H.,  The  Evolution  of  the  Country  Community. 

WILSON,  W.  H.,  The  Church  of  the  Open  Country. 

VOGT,  PAUL  L.,  Church-  Co-operation  in  Community  Life. 
On  the  City  Problem: 

MUNRO,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  American  Cities. 

MUNRO,  W.  B.,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  Adminis- 
tration. 

MUNRO,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  European  Cities. 

ZUEBLIN,  CHARLES,  American  Municipal  Progress. 

POLLOCK,  H.  M.,  AND  MORGAN,  W.  S.,  Modern  Cities. 

HOWE,  F.  C.,  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems. 

HOWE,  F.  C.,  European  Cities  at  Work. 

HOWE,  F.  C.,  The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy. 

WEBER,  A.  F.,  The  Growth  of  Cities  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

WILCOX,  D.  F.,  The  American  City. 

STRONG,  J.,  The  Challenge  of  the  City. 

ROWE,  L.  S.,  Problems  of  City  Government. 

FAIRLEE,  J.  A.,  Municipal  Administration. 

HILL,  H.  W.,  The  New  Public  Health. 

BURNHAM,  A.  C.,  The  Community  Health  Problem. 

TAYLOR,  GRAHAM  R.,  Satellite  Cities. 

GODFREY,  HOLLIS,  Health  of  the  City. 

ARONOVICI,  C.,  Housing  and  the  Housing  Problem. 

WARD,  E.  J.,  The  Social  Center. 

KOESTER,  FRANK,  Modern  City  Planning  and  Maintenance. 

LEWIS,  N.  P.,  The  Planning  of  the  Modern  City. 

NOLEN,  JOHN,  City  Planning. 

The  Pittsburgh  Survey. 

The  Cleveland  Survey. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  AMERICAN  RACE  PROBLEM 

The  negro  problem  in  the  United  States  furnishes  us 
an  example  of  race  problems  generally,  but  it  will  be 
treated  as  more  than  an  illustration,  because  of  its  seri- 
ousness as  an  American  problem.  Eace  hatred  seems  to 
be  almost  innate.  We  consider  the  yellow  race  inferior 
to  the  white;  and  the  yellow  race  has  the  same  attitude 
towards  the  white.  The  English  look  down  upon  the 
Hindoos;  the  Hindoos  despise  the  English.  Every  race 
thinks  itself  superior ;  each  nation  looks  upon  its  country 
and  people  as  the  best;  every  state  does  likewise,  and 
the  average  citizen  in  every  state  considers  his  town  the 
best  place  in  which  to  live.  Though  there  are  exceptions, 
this  principle  is  almost  universal. 

"When  two  races  or  peoples  come  into  contact  there  is 
friction  and  generally  war.  The  result  is  that  one  is 
forced  to  give  in  to  the  other.  It  has  been  said  that  every 
race  which  has  opposed  the  white  race  has  been  defeated ; 
that  the  white  race  has  broken  them  all.  When  the  white 
man  has  come  into  contact  with  the  red  man,  the  red 
man  has  been  annihilated.  When  the  white  man  has  come 
into  contact  with  the  yellow  man,  the  yellow  man,  with 
some  exceptions,  such  as  are  found  in  the  recent  history 
of  Japan,  has  either  retreated  or  given  up  his  land.  When 
the  black  race  has  come  into  contact  with  the  white,  the 
black  has  succumbed ;  instead  of  being  completely  broken, 
however,  he  has  bent,  becoming  the  servant  or  slave  of 
the  white  man.  This  is  true,  not  only  in  America,  but 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  including  most  of  the 
sections  of  Africa  into  which  white  men  have  gone  in  any 
considerable  numbers.  Even  when  outnumbered  by  the 
blacks  twenty  or  even  one  hundred  to  one,  the  whites 

157 


158  The  American  Race  Problem 

have  come  out  victorious  because  of  their  superiority, 
their  greater  advance  in  civilization,  and  their  greater 
will  power,  courage,  ambition,  and  ingenuity. 

Increase  of  Negro  Population. — Let  us  indicate  the 
extent  of  our  problem  by  figures  on  the  relative  size  of 
negro  population,  the  rate  of  increase,  the  percentage 
of  mulattoes,  and  the  distribution  in  the  states  in  which 
they  are  to  be  found.  The  first  negroes  were  brought 
to  this  country  by  the  Dutch  in  1619,  when  a  cargo  of 
twenty  was  landed  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  and  sold  as 
slaves  to  the  planters.  From  that  time  until  January 
1,  1809,  when  the  importation  of  slaves  was  prohibited 
by  Congress,  slaves  were  imported  into  the  United  States 
in  varying  numbers,  thus  adding  to  the  natural  increase 
among  those  already  here.  No  reliable  records  are  avail- 
able till  1790,  when  our  first  census  was  taken,  but  from 
that  time  the  negro  population  has  increased  as  follows: 

Per  Cent  of 

Census  Tear  Negro  Population                    Total  Population 

1790  757,208  19.3 

1800  •        1,002,037  18.9 

1810  1,377,808  19.0 

1820  1,771,656  18.4 

1830  2,328,642  18.1 

1840  2,873,648  16.8 

1850  3,630,808  15.7 

1860  4,441,830  14.1 

18701  5,392,172  13.5 

1880  6,580,793  13.1 

1890  7,488,676  11.9 

1900  8,833,994  11.6 

1910  9,827,763  10.7 

1920  10,463,013  9.9 

1  For  1870  corrected  figures  are  used  instead  of  those  enumerated. 

These  statistics  show  that  while  the  negro  population 
has  increased  rapidly,  it  has  not  increased  so  rapidly  as 
the  white ;  hence  it  has  steadily  become  a  smaller  element 
in  our  total  population.  How  much  this  decrease  is  owing 
to  immigration  and  how  much  to  the  higher  mortality 
of  the  negro  we  do  not  know.  In  all  probability  both 
are  responsible.  When  we  study  the  location  of  the  negro 


The  American  Race  Problem  159 

we  find  that  for  the  most  part  he  still  remains  in  the 
Southern  states  where  slavery  formerly  flourished  and 
that  even  there  he  is  not  holding  his  own  with  the  white. 
So  while  the  negro  has  a  much  higher  birth-rate  than  the 
white,  his  higher  death-rate  more  than  makes  up  for  it; 
this  is  evident,  for  the  Southern  states  have  received  prac- 
tically no  foreign  immigration  and  few  settlers  from  the 
Northern  states. 

Nearly  90  per  cent  of  the  negro  population  is  found  in 
the  Southern  states  which  formerly  allowed  slavery,  and 
over  80  per  cent  in  the  eleven  states  which  contain  that 
strip  of  country  stretching  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  known 
as  the  "Black  Belt."  The  percentages  of  negroes  to  the 
total  populations  of  the  fifteen  former  slave-holding  states 
for  the  years  1860,  1900,  and  1920  are  as  follows : 

Per  Cent  of  Total  Population 

States—  1860  1900  1920 

Alabama    45.4  43.2  38.3 

Arkansas    25.6  28.0  26.9 

Delaware    19.3  16.6  13.6 

Florida  44.6  43.6  34.0 

Georgia    44.0  46.7  41.6 

Kentucky   20.4  13.3  9.8 

Louisiana 49.5  47.1  38.4 

Maryland    24.9  19.8  16.9 

Mississippi    55.3  55.5  52.2 

Missouri   10.0  5.0  5.2 

North  Carolina    36.4  33.0  29.8 

South  Carolina    58.6  58.4  51.4 

Tennessee    25.5  23.8  19.3 

Texas  30.3  20.4  15.9 

Virginia   42.0  35.7  29.9 

There  are  some  counties  along  the  Mississippi  River 
in  which  the  negro  far  outnumbers  the  white ;  for  example, 
Issequena  County,  Mississippi,  has  a  population  consist- 
ing of  6915  negroes  and  702  whites — 90.8  per  cent  negro ; 
Tensas  County,  Louisiana,  has  10,314  negroes  and  1769 
whites — 85.3  per  cent  negro ;  and  Tunica  County,  Missis- 
sippi, has  18,201  negroes  and  2151  white — 89.3  per  cent 
negro.  In  1860  the  negroes  equaled  or  exceeded  the 
whites  in  244  counties ;  in  1910  there  were  263  such  conn- 


160  The  American  Race  Problem 

ties,  187  of  which  were  in  the  first  list.  "While  there  has 
been  some  change,  the  region  having  the  densest  black 
population  has  remained  almost  the  same ;  i.e.,  a  strip  up 
the  Mississippi  as  far  north  as  Memphis,  Tennessee;  an^ 
other  strip  across  Central  Alabama,  Georgia;  nearly  all 
of  South  Carolina ;  and  a  small  area  in  southern  Virginia. 
Urban  vs.  Rural  Population. — The  following  table  will 
show,  for  the  year  1910,  the  relative  numbers  and  per- 
centages of  negroes  dwelling  in  urban  and  rural  districts 
in  the  different  geographical  divisions  of  the  United 
States  :2 


Geographical 
Division 
United  States1    , 

Negro  Po\ 
Eural 
...  7,138,534 

'yulation 
Urban 
2,689,229 
60,877 
339,246 
230,542 
164,301 
909,520 
509,097 
435,838 
15,446 
24,362 

Per  Cent  Negro 
Population 
Bural       Urban 
72.6         27.4 
8.2         91.8 
18.8         81.2 
23.4         76.6 
32.3         67.7 
77.9         22.1 
80.8         19.2 
78.0         22.0 
28.0         72.0 
16.6         83.4 

New  England   

5,439 

Middle  Atlantic   

78,624 

East  North  Central  .  .  . 

70,294 

West  North  Central   .  . 

78,361 

South  Atlantic   

.  .  .   3,202,968 

East  South  Central 

,  .  .   2,143,416 

West  South  Central  .  .  . 

.  .  .   1,548,588 

Mountain    

6,021 

Pacific    . 

4,833 

1  The  1920  census  gives  3,559,473  or  34  per  cent  of  negro  population 
as  urban  and  6,903,658  or  66  per  cent  as  rural  for  the  United  States. 
Figures  for  the  different  geographical  divisions  are  not  at  this 
writing  (March,  1922)  available. 

In  1910  there  were  only  four  cities  of  over  25,000 
population  with  at  least  one-half  of  the  population  negro. 
These  were  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  52.8  per  cent; 
Savannah,  Georgia,  51.1  per  cent;  Jacksonville,  Florida, 
50.8  per  cent,  and  Montgomery,  Alabama,  50.6  per  cent. 
By  1920  the  percentage  of  negroes  in  these  had  fallen  to 
the  following :  Charleston,  47.6 ;  Savannah,  47.1 ;  Jackson- 
ville, 45.3;  and  Montgomery,  45.6.  Other  cities  through- 
out the  South  showed  similar  decreases.  Among  the  more 
populous  cities  the  following  show  the  greatest  ratio  of 
negroes:  Memphis,  40  per  cent;  Birmingham,  39.3  per 
cent;  Richmond,  36.5  per  cent;  Nashville,  33.1  per  cent; 

1  Negro  Tear  Book  for  1916-1917,  p.  373. 


The  American  Race  Problem  161 

'Atlanta,  31.3  per  cent;  New  Orleans,  26.1  per  cent  and 
Washington,  D.  C.,  25.1  per  cent.  In  the  North  the  negro 
has  gone  to  the  cities,  where  he  has  been  compelled  to 
occupy  the  poorest  sections,  since  he  is  generally  able  to 
obtain  employment  at  only  menial  tasks.  Partly  be- 
cause of  this  demoralizing  environment  he  has  created  his 
own  problem  in  the  Northern  city.  In  the  South  the 
negro  has  not  rushed  to  the  cities  but  has  remained  in 
an  almost  unvarying  proportion  on  the  farms.  Although 
many  have  moved  to  small  towns  there  has  been  no  great 
amount  of  urban  migration.  Through  a  long  period  of 
years  there  has  been  for  the  nation  a  slight  decrease ;  but 
in  recent  years  there  is  noticed  an  opposite  tendency, 
the  proportion  increasing  from  2.8  per  cent  for  the  decade 
1890  to  1900  to  4.7  per  cent  for  the  decade  1900  to  1910, 
and  6.6  for  the  decade  1910  to  1920. 

Increase  and  Distribution  of  Blacks  and  Mulattoes. — 
Under  " black"  the  census  enumerators  have  been  in- 
structed to  include  all  who  were  evidently  full-blood 
negroes,  and  under  "mulatto"  those  apparently  having 
white  blood.  In  the  census  for  1890  an  attempt  was  made 
to  classify  as  " black"  those  having  three-fourths  or  more 
negro  blood,  and  to  classify  others  as  "mulattoes," 
' '  quadroons, "  or  ' '  octoroons. ' '  This  made,  however,  little 
actual  difference  in  enumeration.  The  distribution  of 
blacks  and  mulattoes  is  shown  by  the  following  table  :s 

PERCENTAGE  OF  BLACKS  AND  MULATTOES  BY  GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISIONS 

1910  1890  1870 

Geographic  Division     Black  Mulatto  "Black  Mulatto  Black  Mulatto 

United  States  79.1       20.9  84.8       15.2  88.0       12.0 

New  England  66.6       33.4  67.3       32.7  71.4       28.6 

Middle  Atlantic    80.4       19.6  78.6       21.4  85.1       14.9 

East  North  Central...  66.8       33.2  62.8       37.2  70.8       29.2 

West  North  Central. .    71.3       28.7  74.7       25.3  84.0       16.0 

South   Atlantic    79.2       20.8  86.6       13.4  89.4       10.6 

West  North  Central..   71.3       28.7  74.7       25.3  84.0       16.0 

West  South  Central..  79.9       20.1  85.5       15.5  86.9       13.1 

Mountain    71.4       28.6  64.3       35.7  69.6       30.4 

Pacific    65.3       34.7  57.7      42.3  62.7       37.3 

•Negro  Year  Book,  1916-1917,  p.  366. 


162  The  American  Race  Problem 

This  table  shows  us  two  things :  that  the  percentage  of 
mulattoes  is  increasing,  and  that  where  there  are  the 
fewest  negroes  the  percentage  of  mulattoes  is  the  highest. 
The  increase  of  mulattoes  is  probably  not  the  result  of 
any  increase  in  immorality  but  rather  to  the  gradual 
seeping  of  the  white  blood  through  the  whole  black 
population.  The  fact  that  there  are  more  mulattoes  in 
the  Northern  and  "Western  states  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  negroes  shows  in  all  probability  that  it  is  the 
mulatto  who  is  restless  and  who  often  goes  away  from 
home.  Because  he  has  white  blood  in  his  veins  he  resents 
his  position  of  social  inferiority  the  more  and  tries  to  get 
away  from  it.  It  is  the  mulatto  who  generally  goes  to 
Northern  colleges  and  gets  positions  in  the  North ;  this  is 
because  he  has  more  enterprise  and  dares  to  venture 
away  from  home.  The  serious  feature  of  this  situation 
is  the  increase  in  the  ratio  of  mulatto  to  black. 

There  is  at  present  no  probability  that  the  negro  will 
catch  up  in  population  with  the  white.  If  there  is  any 
danger  at  all  it  is  in  regard  to  the  increase  in  number 
of  the  mulatto  and  his  recent  rush  to  the  city. 

Influence  of  Past  History  Upon  the  Negro. — In  study- 
ing the  negro  we  must  take  into  consideration  his  past 
history,  not  only  in  America  during  the  period  of  slavery, 
but  also  in  Africa  for  thousands  of  years  before  he  came 
here.  Whether  or  not  the  negro  differed  from  other  races 
before  he  migrated  to  Africa  is  not  known,  but  in  all 
probability  he  had  traits  in  common  with  other  inhabi- 
tants of  Asia  Minor.  The  theory  is  often  favored,  and 
as  frequently  denied,  that  the  negro  owes  his  dark  skin 
and  woolly  hair  to  the  effect  of  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the 
heat  producing  the  pigment  under  the  skin,  which  causes 
the  color  to  develop  and  the  hair  to  curl.  Another  ex- 
planation— and  a  more  plausible  one — is  that  those  who 
had  the  pigment  withstood  the  heat  of  the  sun  better 
than  the  persons  who  were  not  so  protected,  and  thus 
they  survived  and  increased,  while  the  less  protected 
ones  died  out;  consequently  the  pigment  was  through 
natural  selection  universally  developed  among  negroes. 


The  American  Race  Probkm  163 

A  similar  explanation  is  advanced  as  to  the  other 
characteristics  of  the  negro ;  that  for  example  those  who 
had  a  high  birth-rate  survived  while  those  who  did  not 
perished;  the  reason  being  that  a  high  birth-rate  was 
necessary  to  withstand  the  high  death-rate  caused  by  the 
climate  and  the  ravages  of  wild  beasts.  Those  who  had 
large  families  were  those  who  married  early ;  those  groups 
who  treated  the  women  and  children  well  were  apt  to 
survive.  This  tended  to  develop  the  strong  family  affec- 
tion that  exists  in  the  negro,  and  to  bring  about  early 
marriages  and  large  families. 

The  docility  of  the  negro,  his  easy-going  attitude 
towards  life,  and  his  laziness  and  indifference  to  the 
future  are  likewise  owing  to  natural  selection,  for  those 
who  were  inclined  to  be  nervous  and  excitable,  who  took 
life  too  seriously,  were  unable  to  survive  the  hot  climate ; 
those  who  took  things  easier  did  survive.  The  negro 
had  no  cause  for  worry  as  to  his  food  supply;  nature, 
while  hard  on  him  in  regard  to  disease  and  wild  beasts, 
was  an  abundant  provider.  Food  was  plentiful  on  every 
hand ;  so  there  was  no  incentive  to  provide  for  the  future 
or  even  to  work  hard.  There  was  no  need  of  much  cloth- 
ing, merely  enough  for  ornament  and  for  satisfying  the 
claims  of  modesty — which  did  not  demand  much.  The 
same  was  true  of  shelter;  no  great  provision  had  to  be 
made,  only  protection  from  rain  and  beasts  being 
necessary. 

In  short  his  life  tended  to  develop  in  the  negro  an  easy- 
going, care-free  disposition.  Because  food  was  abundant 
the  negro  developed  a  large  physique.  But  stimuli  to 
mental  development  there  were  none.  Mind  is  the  product 
of  necessity ;  man  thinks  only  when  forced  to  do  so.  The 
negro  was  not  compelled  to  use  much  ingenuity  or  to 
tax  his  intellect  to  any  great  extent  to  provide  a  living; 
so  his  mental  capacities  did  not  develop.  Nature  did  not 
select  the  shrewd  or  cunning  as  in  the  colder  climates; 
thus  we  find  the  negro  possessing  a  strong  physique  but 
an  inferior  intellect.  By  this  we  do  not  mean  that  poten- 
tially the  black  mind  is  inferior;  but  since  civilization  is 


164  The  American  Race  Problem 

the  cumulation  of  achievement,  and  since  the  negro  did 
not  achieve  like  the  white  man  because  he  was  not  com- 
pelled to  do  so,  he  has  not  made  any  accumulation  to 
compare  with  that  of  the  white  man ;  hence  have  resulted 
his  mental  inferiority,  his  ranking  below  the  white  in 
the  scale  of  progress,  and  his  falling  a  victim  to  the 
superior  cunning,  courage,  and  fighting  ability  of  the 
white.  For  this  reason  the  black  has  become  a  subject 
race  while  the  white  has  become  a  ruling  race.  So  in 
our  study  of  the  negro  in  America  we  must  remember  his 
past  history.  While  he  has  been  removed  from  the 
environment  that  brought  about  this  condition,  the  effects 
of  it  are  still  with  him.  In  Africa  he  came  into  contact 
with  a  condition  of  nature  which  he  could  not  explain; 
it  was  awe-inspiring  and  at  the  same  time  too  complicated 
for  him  to  master ;  hence  his  belief  in  magic,  superstition, 
and  witchcraft.  The  negro  brought  these  beliefs  to 
America  with  him,  and  many  of  them  are  still  accepted 
by  the  majority  of  the  negroes,  simply  because  they  have 
been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation.  The 
negro 's  contact  with  civilization  has  been  very  recent  and 
under  an  artificial  condition.  It  will  take  him  many  years, 
possibly  hundreds,  to  catch  up  completely  with  the  white 
— if  he  ever  does.  His  past  hangs  upon  him  like  a  dead 
weight. 

As  a  slave  the  negro  learned  to  work  but  he  did  so 
under  compulsion,  under  conditions  which  made  him  hate 
manual  labor.  He  was  made  to  work  whether  he  wanted 
to  or  not.  Under  slavery,  in  spite  of  his  dislike  for  work, 
he  became  proficient  industrially;  many  negroes  became 
skilled  mechanics,  carpenters,  bricklayers,  blacksmiths, 
and  masons;  others  became  expert  as  cooks,  butlers, 
coachmen,  maids,  and  laundresses;  those  working  on  the 
cotton  plantations  became  expert  in  the  raising  of  cotton. 
In  fact,  each  class  became  economically  productive,  and 
when  granted  his  freedom  the  negro  as  an  economic 
machine  was  well  equipped.  In  one  way  slavery  was  a 
good  thing  for  the  negro — it  taught  him  to  work.  Yet 
it  taught  him  at  the  same  time  to  hate  work. 


The  American  Race  Problem  165 

Slavery,  however,  affected  the  negro  in  other  than 
industrial  ways.  Family  life  under  slavery  was  not 
developed  even  under  the  best  conditions,  for  home  life 
was  uncertain.  Marriages  were  seldom  performed;  mar- 
riage ties  were  seldom  held  sacred ;  the  master  could  sell 
a  man's  wife  or  a  woman's  husband  or  a  parent's  child; 
he  could  break  up  the  family  of  his  slave  at  will.  Then, 
too,  family  ties  were  not  even  considered  necessary.  The 
masters  themselves  not  only  did  not  protect  virtue  in  their 
female  slaves,  but  too  frequently  did  not  respect  it  them- 
selves. Hence  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  negro  not  only 
learned  little  family  morality  but  also  acquired  little  skill 
in  the  training  of  children.  Furthermore  because  his 
work  was  planned  for  him  and  his  task  assigned,  he  did 
not  acquire  self-control  and  the  ability  to  plan  things  for 
himself  and  to  make  provision  for  the  future.  He  did 
not  have  these  traits  developed  when  he  came  to  America 
and  slavery  did  not  develop  them  for  him.  Slavery 
taught  the  American  negro  respect  for  and  deference  to 
the  whites;  it  perhaps  developed  him  physically,  as  in 
the  first  place  it  subjected  him  to  a  difficult  test  of 
survival  of  the  fittest,  before  he  reached  this  country,  the 
weakest  falling  by  the  wayside  on  the  trip  to  the  coast 
or  perishing  on  board  ship.  The  high-strung  and  inde- 
pendent negroes  were  also  cut  down  by  the  slave  drivers 
when  they  resisted  or  tried  to  escape.  In  this  way  only 
the  strong  and  submissive  survived. 

Possibly  the  most  demoralizing  period  in  the  history 
of  the  negro  was  the  brief  but  horrible  time  of  Recon- 
struction, when  the  carpet-baggers  from  the  North  tried 
to  organize  the  negroes  and  teach  them  tnat  they  were 
the  equals  of  the  whites,  and,  by  use  of  their  votes, 
attempted  to  fill  their  own  pockets  at  the  expense  of  the 
Southern  whites.  These  carpet-baggers  cared  nothing  for 
the  negroes ;  they  merely  saw  in  them  a  means  of  making 
money  for  themselves.  The  period  of  Reconstruction 
aroused  the  hatred  of  the  South  against  the  North  far 
more  than  did  the  war  itself;  it  caused  the  Southerners 
to  misapprehend  the  real  purpose  of  the  North  and  to 


166  The  American  Race  Problem 

look  upon  all  Northerners  as  scoundrels.  At  the  same 
time  race  friction  was  increased.  During  slavery  the 
relations  between  the  average  master  and  slave  were  on 
the  whole  friendly.  When  the  carpet-baggers  began  to 
organize  the  negroes  and  to  arouse  in  them  a  hatred  of 
their  former  masters,  race  friction  rapidly  developed.  The 
reaction  of  the  Southern  whites  found  expression  in  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan  and  later  in  the  practical  disfranchisement 
of  the  negroes  in  most  of  the  Southern  states.  But  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  negro  probably  the  most  serious 
aspect  of  the  new  condition  was  that  it  took  him  from 
his  work,  causing  him  to  leave  the  cotton  field  and  his 
other  occupations,  to  loaf  in  town,  and  to  look  down 
upon  manual  labor. 

Upon  emancipation  the  negro  did  not  educate  or  train 
his  children  to  become  economically  efficient.  He  did  not 
wish  his  children  to  be  obliged  to  work  as  he  had  worked. 
He  wanted  them  to  become  educated,  since  in  his  view 
education  was  the  key  to  social  position.  Instead  of 
teaching  them  trades  he  tried  to  educate  them  along  gen- 
eral lines,  especially  in  Northern  schools,  and  consequently 
the  second  generation  did  not  attain  the  economic  effi- 
ciency of  their  parents.  The  slaves  had  been  trained 
by  the  whites,  but  the  younger  generation  received  little 
if  any  training;  they  simply  grew  up  creating  a  more 
serious  problem  than  the  preceding  generation.  Because 
they  were  not  efficient  they  could  not  command  good 
wages;  they  were  not  able  to  earn  a  good  living  and  so 
slumped  economically.  Thirty  years  after  the  war  the 
negro  was  worse  off  than  he  was  at  the  time  he  was  given 
his  freedom,  .for  then  he  was  efficient  and  the  South  needed 
and  wanted  him.  But  later  he  was  less  efficient  and  the 
whites  had  grown  disgusted  with  him. 

Many  authorities  contend  that  the  psychological  and 
physiological  traits  distinguishing  the  negro  from  the 
white  are  innate,  rather  than  acquired;  that  the  colored 
race  has  certain  innate  mental  as  well  as  physical  quali- 
ties; that  he  is  characterized  by  a  greater  power  of 
memory,  stronger  sexual  passions,  submissiveness  rather 


The  American  Race  Problem  167 

than  pugnacity,  a  larger  sense  of  sociability,  and  a 
greater  ability  to  read  character  and  interpret  one's 
thoughts;  that  he  is  essentially  emotional  in  religion; 
that  he  has  a  smaller  capacity  for  group  organization 
and  for  government ;  that  he  is  more  influenced  by  imita- 
tion, emotion,  and  emulation,  than  by  rational  thinking 
and  purposeful  direction.  The  writer  admits  all  these 
characteristics  and  the  possibility  that  some  of  them  may 
be  innate;  however,  he  believes  that  the  influences  of 
natural  selection  and  environment  are  much  stronger. 

Economic  Progress  of  the  Negro. — The  economic  prog- 
ress of  the  negro  is  not  so  difficult  to  estimate  if  we  are 
able  to  get  reliable  statistics  on  the  negro  to-day,  for  he 
began  upon  emancipation  with  practically  nothing.  A 
few  had  gained  their  freedom  before  emancipation  and 
had  accumulated  some  property,  and  the  masters  of  some 
had  started  them  out  with  small  farms,  but  the  bulk  of 
the  negroes  began  life  upon  receiving  their  freedom  at 
the  economic  zero  point.  The  Negro  Year  Book  is  respon- 
sible for  the  following  statistics  in  regard  to  the  economic 
progress  of  the  race: 

1866  1883                1893  1903  1916 

Homes  owned 12,000  128,000              210,000  390,000  600,000 

Farms  operated 20,000  380,000             550,000  790,000  981,000 

Businesses  conducted              2,100  10,000                17,000  25,000  45,000 

Wealth  accumulated  $20,000,000  $75,000,000  $150,000,000  $300,000,000  $1,000,000,000 

These  figures  show  that  the  negro  has  steadily  increased 
in  economic  prosperity  until,  in  1916,  he  had  an  average 
per  capita  wealth  of  about  $100.  However,  to  ascertain 
the  true  significance  of  this  increase  we  must  compare 
it  with  the  increase  for  the  whole  country.  In  1860  the 
average  per  capita  wealth  was  $308  and  in  1916  about 
$2000.  So,  while  the  negro  has  prospered  economically 
and,  because  he  started  with  practically  nothing,  has  per- 
haps progressed  more  in  proportion  than  the  white,  his 
actual  accumulation  of  wealth  has  not  kept  pace  with 
that  of  the  country.  But  the  really  encouraging  feature 
is  the  rapid  increase  shown  during  the  past  few  years, 
it  having  more  than  trebled  between  1903  and  1916.  Since 
1916  it  has  increased  still  more  because  of  the  economic 


168  The  American  Race  Problem 

prosperity  of  the  South,  in  which  he  has  shared.  If  the 
negro  continues  at  this  rate  of  progress  it  will  be  only 
a  matter  of  a  few  decades  until  his  economic  condition 
will  compare  much  more  favorably  with  that  of  the  white 
man. 

In  all  probability  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  recent 
economic  progress  of  the  negro  has  been  the  spread  of 
industrial  education  among  the  black  population.  From 
the  industrial  schools  for  the  negro  come  possibly  our 
greatest  promise  that  instead  of  the  average  negro  hav- 
ing practically  nothing  he  will  become  fairly  prosperous. 
When  the  negro  owns  property  and  pays  taxes,  he  not 
only  commands  greater  respect  but  is  in  a  position  to 
obtain  better  schools  and  to  solve  his  other  problems. 
Also  when  the  negro  is  industrious  he  is  less  apt  to  get 
into  trouble. 

Immigration  has  not  seriously  affected  the  negro  in 
the  South,  but  it  may  in  the  futuce.  In  the  North  the 
immigrant  has  driven  the  negro  out  of  many  occupations 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  he  has  the  white.  He  has 
not  done  this  by  underbidding  the  negro  but  by  greater 
efficiency.  He  has  crowded  the  negro  out  of  such  occupa- 
tions as  that  of  barber,  waiter,  janitor,  and  bell-boy.  The 
negro  is  pushed  into  unskilled  labor  which  requires  mere 
muscle,  work  which  the  white  man  does  not  want.  It 
is  not  so  much  race  prejudice  as  the  ability  of  the  white 
man  to  do  his  work  better  and  more  rapidly,  that  has 
produced  this  result.  The  white  man  is  more  reliable  and 
more  efficient,  and  because  of  his  capacity  to  form  labor 
unions  he  is  more  powerful  economically.  Few  unions 
will  admit  negroes,  thus  preventing  them  from  entering 
the  ranks  of  skilled  labor,  even  if  they  are  individually 
capable  of  doing  so.  Immigrants  are  not  so  barred. 

Immigration  has  not  as  yet  affected  the  South,  because 
the  immigrant  does  not  care  to  compete  with  the  negro, 
partly  because  of  the  low  wages  in  the  South  and  partly 
because  of  the  fear  that  he  will  be  placed  upon  the  same 
social  level  as  the  negro.  Several  Southern  states  have 
been  attempting  to  divert  a  part  of  the  immigrant  stream 


The  American  Race  ^Problem  169 

into  the  South,  but  thus  far  they  have  not  been  very 
successful.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  few  immigrants 
who  have  gone  to  the  South  have  more  than  held  their 
own  industrially  with  the  negro.  Stone4  tells  of  an  ex- 
periment on  an  Arkansas  cotton  plantation,  in  which 
Italians  and  negroes  were  employed  side  by  side  on  the 
same  plantation.  The  result  was  that  the  Italians  pro- 
duced on  the  average  2584  pounds  of  lint  per  head, 
against  1174  for  the  negroes ;  that  the  Italians  produced  on 
the  average  403  pounds  of  lint  per  acre,  against  233 
pounds  for  the  negroes;  that  the  Italians'  average  cash 
product  per  head  was  $277.32,  as  against  $128.47  for  the 
negro;  and  that  the  Italians'  cash  product  per  acre  was 
$44.70,  as  against  $26.30  for  the  negroes.  In  this  experi- 
ment the  Italians  were  at  a  disadvantage  because  they 
were  unaccustomed  to  cotton  growing;  they  even  had 
to  be  shown  which  plants  were  cotton  and  which  were 
weeds;  but  in  spite  of  this  each  Italian  worked  on  an 
average  6.2  acres  against  5.1  for  the  negro,  and  produced 
170  pounds  more  lint  per  acre.  The  chief  difference, 
however,  lay  in  the  expense  account,  the  Italian  getting 
only  the  things  that  he  absolutely  had  to  have  and  the 
negro  obtaining  all  that  he  could  get.  The  Italian  kept 
his  expenses  below  his  income  and  saved  in  order  to  pay 
for  the  land,  but  the  negro  did  not  even  try  to  save  for 
next  year's  supplies,  looking  upon  a  cash  balance  at  the 
end  of  the  year  as  money  to  spend  or  rather  to  throw 
away,  letting  next  year's  crop  take  care  of  itself.  The 
Italian  bought  for  cash  where  he  could  do  so  at  a  dis- 
count, even  offering  to  pay  his  rent  in  advance  if  given 
a  discount.  Of  course  he  bought  things  cheaper  than  did 
the  negro,  who  as  a  rule  pays  the  highest  prices  for 
everything  that  he  buys. 

If  similar  experiments  are  tried  throughout  the  South 
with  the  same  result,  it  will  be  only  a  question  of  time 
until  the  immigrant  becomes  a  serious  competitor  of  tho 
negro  in  the  South,  with  possibly  even  more  disastrous 
results  than  in  the  North,  because  it  is  the  more  enter- 

*  Stone,  A.  H.;  Studies  in  the  American  Bace  Problem,  pp.  180-195. 


170  The  American  Race  Problem 

prising  negro  who  goes  to  the  North.  On  this  account 
the  Southern  negro  will  be  even  less  able  to  compete  than 
his  Northern  brother,  although  climate  will  be  in  favor 
of  the  negro,  as  well  as  the  habit  and  preference  of  the 
Southern  white  to  employ  the  negro.  If  immigration  is 
thus  turned  towards  the  South  it  will  greatly  complicate 
the  negro  problem,  for  it  will  add  industrial  discrimina- 
tion to  social  ostracism.  The  unreliability  of  the  negro  is 
his  greatest  handicap.  His  shiftlessness  and  improvidence 
will  cause  him  to  lose  to  the  immigrant  wherever  they 
come  into  contact.  This  is  the  cause  of  his  being  obliged 
to  pay  higher  prices  and  to  work  under  harder  terms  of 
contract  than  he  otherwise  would  be  able  to  command. 

The  migratory  habits  of  the  negro  hinder  him  econom- 
ically. The  plantation  owner  never  knows  how  many  of 
this  year's  tenants  he  will  have  next  year.  The  employer 
of  negro  labor  never  knows  how  many  of  to-day's 
laborers  will  appear  for  work  to-morrow.  The  Southern 
railroads  have  made  use  of  this  habit  of  the  negroes  by 
arranging  frequent  excursions;  thus  they  help  to  pay 
dividends.  Circuses  and  amusement  companies  also  take 
advantage  of  his  love  of  amusement  and  change. 

In  opposition  to  this  threatened  competition  of  the 
immigrant  is  the  movement  to  train  the  negro  indus- 
trially; to  teach  the  men  trades  and  scientific  farming, 
and  to  teach  the  women  how  to  keep  house  and  cook — 
to  be,  in  short,  efficient  economically.  If  this  movement 
grows  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  discourage  immigration, 
it  will  help  to  solve  the  economic  situation.  The  South- 
ern white  would  much  prefer  negro  labor  to  that  of  white 
if  the  negro  were  as  efficient.  The  negro,  too,  is  better 
adapted  to  the  climate,  especially  in  the  cotton  belt,  and 
has  this  advantage  over  the  white.  But  at  present  the 
negro  has  not  the  monopoly  upon  the  labor,  especially 
the  skilled  labor,  in  the  South  which  he  had  at  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War. 

Under  the  present  conditions  the  negro  generally  rents 
his  land  instead  of  owning  it;  he  usually  rents  it  on1 
shares,  the  white  owner  furnishing  the  land,  tools,  and 
seed;  and  the  negro,  the  labor';  then  the  two  share  the 


The  American  Race  Problem  171 

crop,  ordinarily  half  and  half.  In  addition  the  white 
generally  advances  supplies,  which  are  to  be  paid  for  at 
harvest  time  from  the  negro's  share.  If  the  negro  rents 
land  not  under  plantation  management,  he  gets  his  sup- 
plies advanced  to  him  by  a  merchant  or  cotton  factor, 
in  the  manner  and  to  the  amount  that  his  credit  entitles 
him.  Because  of  the  ignorance  and  poor  bargaining  posi- 
tion of  the  negro  he  is  often  the  victim  of  fraudulent 
bookkeeping,  but  with  most  of  them  the  general  credit 
system  is  necessary.  The  exceptional  negro  who  has  good 
credit  can  get  cash  advances  or  can  lease  ground  at  a 
definite  cash  rental,  and  if  he  is  honest  and  industrious, 
he  can  soon,  because  of  the  richness  of  the  soil,  become 
independent.  In  fact,  much  of  the  land  is  so  rich,  espe- 
cially along  the  Mississippi  River,  that  it  will  make  a 
crop  in  spite  of  the  negligence  of  the  negro,  and  it  is 
for  this  reason  that  the  negro  is  able  to  have  advances 
made  to  him.  But  as  yet  few  have  become  independent. 
They  prefer  to  spend  their  money  on  excursions,  picnics, 
gambling,  whiskey,  women,  and  cheap  jewelry.  Such  Is 
the  condition  in  the  cotton  belt.  It  is  just  such  conditions 
as  this  that  the  followers  of  Booker  T.  Washington  are 
trying  to  overcome  by  making  the  negro  industrially 
efficient. 

Negro  Education. — The  educational  progress  has  been 
more  rapid  and  the  results  more  satisfactory  than  the 
economic  progress  of  the  negro;  yet  there  is  endless 
opportunity  for  improvement.  The  Negro  Year  Book  is 
again  drawn  upon  for  the  following  statistics  in  regard 
to  educational  progress:5 

1863          1883  1903  1916 

Per  Cent  Literate1 5  30  56  75 

Number  Colleges  and  Nor- 
mal Schools   4  120  425  500 

Students  in  Public  Schools     10,000        817,000       1,577,000       1,736,000 

Teachers  in  all  Schools. .  150          16,000  28,600  36,900 

School  Property  for 

Higher   Education    $50,000  $7,000,000  $15,000.000  $21,500,000 

Expend,   for   Education .  .   200,000     5,500,000     10,000,000     14,600,000 

Raised    by    Negroes    for 

Educ 10,000        500,000          900,000       1,600,000 

1  The  1920  census  gives  negro  illiteracy  at  22.9  per  cent. 
'Year  Book  1913-1914,  pp.  2-4;  1916-1917,  p.  1. 


172  The  American  Race  Problem 

The  most  noticeable  improvement  has  been  in  the  in- 
crease of  the  percentage  of  literacy.  The  amount  of 
money  spent  in  negro  education  and  the  amount  of  money 
invested  in  school  property  have  kept  pace  with  the  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  pupils.  Yet  the  amount  of  money 
raised  by  the  negroes  themselves  in  proportion  to  that 
raised  by  the  whites  is  still  very  small,  although  the  ratio 
is  steadily  becoming  greater.  In  a  few  sections  of  the 
South  the  negroes  are  supplementing  by  subscription  the 
funds  appropriated  for  negro  schools.  If,  however,  we 
compare  the  amount  of  money  spent  on  each  negro  in 
the  public  schools,  we  shall  find  it  small  in  comparison 
with  the  amount  spent  on  the  white  child.  In  one  way 
we  cannot  blame  the  white  voters  for  not  appropriating 
more  for  negro  schools,  because  the  whites  pay  about  97 
per  cent  of  the  taxes.  Yet,  as  Page  says,6  an  uneducated 
negro  is  a  greater  problem  than  an  educated  one.  He  is 
more  affected  by  crime,  vice,  and  poverty. 

Two  great  difficulties  confront  negro  education — lack 
of  efficient  teachers  and  lack  of  equipment.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  get  whites  to  teach  in  negro  schools  in  appreciable 
numbers  because  of  the  attendant  social  ostracism.  It 
is  hardly  advisable  to  employ  white  teachers  for  negro 
children  because  of  the  possible  tendency  towards  social 
equality.  Until  very  recently  there  have  been  few  capable 
negro  teachers,  for  upon  emancipation  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  negroes  were  even  literate,  and  in  the  past 
many  of  the  negro  teachers  have  been  barely  able  to  read 
and  write.  With  time  this  problem  will  be  eliminated. 
As  a  rule  any  sort  of  shack  is  considered  good  enough  for 
the  negro  school,  and  benches  of  any  style  or  stage  of 
dilapidation  sufficient  for  equipment.  The  pay  of  the 
teachers  has  been  so  poor  that  it  has  not  attracted  the 
best  prepared  negroes.  Until  this  condition  is  remedied 
we  cannot  expect  good  teachers.  Another  hindrance  is 
the  short  session  which  often  lasts  only  from  three  to 
five  months  in  a  year — sometimes  only  a  few  weeks. 

•Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  The  Negro,  the  Southerner's  Problem, 
p.  297. 


The  American  Race  Problem  173 

During  slavery,  education  of  the  negro  was  not  fos- 
tered; in  fact,  it  was  forbidden  by  law  in  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  South  Carolina,  and  discouraged 
in  all  other  Southern  states,  for  fear  that  education  would 
foster  dissatisfaction  among  the  negroes  in  regard  to  their 
position.  The  household  servants  are  frequently  taught 
the  rudiments  of  an  education,  enough  at  least  to  enable 
them  to  discharge  their  duties  efficiently.  The  field  hands 
were  not  so  fortunate,  however,  and  were  seldom 
educated. 

During  the  period  of  Reconstruction  educators  went  to 
the  South  from  the  North,  influenced  by  missionary  zeal 
to  help  educate  the  negro.  While  fired  by  the  same  spirit 
which  has  sent  missionaries  to  the  foreign  field  they 
probably  caused  more  harm  than  good.  They  too  fre- 
quently tried  to  teach  the  negro  social  equality,  even 
practicing  it  by  mingling  and  associating  with  the  negroes 
themselves.  They  tried  to  teach  the  negro  too  many  of 
the  "frills"  of  education,  like  Latin  and  Greek,  instead 
of  giving  him  the  education  which  he  could  use  in  his 
every-day  life.  This  caused  negro  education  to  become 
discredited  in  the  eyes  of  the  Southern  whites,  who  paid 
the  taxes,  and  as  a  result  money  was  not  voted  for  negro 
schools.  It  has  only  been  since  the  education  of  the 
negro  has  been  conducted  along  practical  lines  that  the 
whites  of  the  South  have  taken  an  interest  in  it.  At  first 
the  funds  were  raised  in  the  North,  largely  as  missionary 
money.  During  the  last  few  years  practical  courses  have 
been  offered  in  negro  schools,  especially  the  high  schools, 
including  the  industrial  subjects  and  domestic  science. 
Under  the  latter  are  included  not  only  cooking  and  sew- 
ing, but  the  canning  and  preserving  of  fruits  and 
vegetables. 

The  whole  modern  trend  of  negro  education  is  away 
from  higher  education  fitting  for  the  professions,  entry 
to  which  is  difficult  for  the  negro,  if  not  impossible.  The 
aim  is,  instead,  to  fit  for  actual  industrial  life  and  efficient 
home-keeping  by  teaching  trades.  These  include  car- 
pentering, bricklaying,  masonry,  paper-hanging,  black- 


174  The  American  Race  Problem 

smithing,  dairying,  and  agriculture,  thus  fitting  the  negro 
for  a  place  in  life  where  he  can  become  economically  pros- 
perous. The  demand  for  negro  doctors,  lawyers,  dentists, 
and  other  professional  classes  is,  however,  slowly  increasing, 
although  as  yet  the  negroes  themselves  prefer  the  white 
professional  man  because  of  their  greater  confidence  in 
his  professional  ability.  As  this  demand  increases  greater 
opportunities  will  be  opened  up  for  the  negro  along  pro- 
fessional lines.  In  the  past  many  negroes  have  obtained 
college  and  professional  training  in  Northern  colleges  and 
universities  and  have  been  unable  to  make  use  of  such 
training  because  of  the  lack  of  a  demand  for  their 
services. 

In  the  Northern  states,  because  of  the  small  number  of 
negroes  and  the  less  acute  racial  feeling,  there  have  been 
no  separate  schools,  except  in  one  or  two  states  liko 
Missouri,  and  a  few  towns,  such  as  Kansas  City,  Kansas. 
The  negroes  have  enjoyed  the  same  educational  opportuni- 
ties, but  have  not  had  the  same  opportunities  for  making 
use  of  that  education.  In  the  South,  however,  the  educa- 
tion of  the  negro  is  an  aspect  of  the  race  question  which 
is  quite  serious.  Recently  there  seems  to  be  not  only 
greater  response  to  educational  opportunities  on  the  part 
of  the  negro,  but  also  greater  appreciation  of  their  value 
on  the  part  of  the  white,  and  as  a  result  much  greater 
progress  is  being  made.  If  the  negro  can  increase  his 
economic  prosperity,  negro  education  can  be  easily 
improved. 

The  Political  Condition. — Under  slavery  the  negro  of 
course  had  no  political  rights  other  than  protection 
against  abuse,  and  even  here  his  rights  were  very  limited. 
It  was  a  crime  willfully  to  kill  a  slave  but  not  to  flog  him, 
and  in  most  states  to  kill  him  accidentally  or  to  maltreat 
him  was  not  a  punishable  offense.  The  law  protected 
him  much  the  same  as  to-day  it  protects  animals  from 
cruelty.  As  to  voting  privileges,  he  had  none  in  the 
South7  and  but  few  in  the  North;  in  fact,  out  of  the 

T  There  were  a  few  exceptions  to  this ;  free  negroes  could  vote  in 
North  Carolina  up  until  1835. 


The  American  Race  Problem  175 

thirty-four  states  which  constituted  the  Union  in  1861, 
thirty  excluded  negroes  from  the  right  of  franchise  by 
constitutional  provision.  In  the  other  four — New  York, 
Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts — the 
negroes  were  not  only  few  in  number  but  of  a  high 
standard  of  education  and  industry. 

By  the  adoption  of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  the  American  people 
committed  probably  the  worst  political  blunder  in  the 
history  of  this  country.  This  amendment  was  adopted  in 
order  to  give  the  negro  the  right  to  defend  himself  by 
means  of  the  ballot.  But  the  negro  was  unable  to  appre- 
ciate the  value  and  significance  of  the  ballot ;  as  a  result 
he  was  merely  the  tool  of  corrupt  politicians.  This  fact 
explains  the  prevalence  of  so  much  corruption  during  the 
period  of  Reconstruction.  The  majority  of  the  whites 
were  disfranchised  because  of  taking  part  in  the  Civil 
War  against  the  Federal  government,  and  the  right  of  the 
ballot  was  held  by  the  ignorant  negro  who  had  no  idea 
how  to  use  it.  This  increased  race  friction  and  probably 
injured  the  negro  as  much  as  it  did  the  white;  in  fact, 
it  is  an  open  question  which  of  the  two  has  been  injured 
the  more  by  the  Fifteenth  Amendment.  So  acute  was  the 
problem  and  so  great  the  abuse  of  the  ballot  by  the 
negro,  that  the  Southern  whites  were  compelled  to  take 
steps  to  deprive  him  of  it.  This  deprivation  took  two 
forms — force  or  intimidation,  and  political  disfranchise- 
ment.  At  first  violence  and  fraud  were  used  openly,  be- 
cause it  was  deemed  that  the  situation  warranted  such 
action.  This  condition  lasted  until  1890,  when  Mississippi 
took  the  first  step  towards  the  disfranchisement  of  the 
negro  by  adopting  a  literacy  test  for  voters.  While  this 
applied  to  both  colored  and  white  voters,  it  affected  the 
colored  chiefly  because  of  their  greater  illiteracy. 

Other  states  went  still  farther,  following  the  lead  of 
Louisiana,  and  adopted  the  so-called  "grandfather" 
clauses,  making  the  privilege  of  voting  dependent  upon 
the  ability  to  read  and  write,  unless  one  were  a  lineal 
descendant  of  a  man  who  voted  prior  to  1867.  Other 


176  The  American  Race  Problem 

states  require  the  payment  of  taxes.  Georgia  by  a  cumu- 
lative poll-tax  law  which  requires  back  poll-taxes  to  be 
paid  has  probably  the  most  effective  disfranchisement 
clauses,  although  there  is  no  discrimination  between  black 
and  white.  In  Tennessee  the  prepayment  of  a  poll-tax 
is  necessary  for  voting,  and  as  a  result  the  bulk  of  the 
negroes  do  not  vote,  considering  it  not  worth  the  pay- 
ment of  the  tax.  Texas  also  has  a  poll-tax  qualification 
for  voting,  requiring  the  presentation  of  a  poll-tax  receipt 
at  the  polls.  In  addition  to  this  Texas  has  a  white  man's 
primary. 

Some  of  these  provisions  have  been  upheld  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  because  technically 
they  do  not  violate  the  Fifteenth  Amendment,  but  the 
"grandfather"  clauses  of  the  constitution  of  Oklahoma 
and  Maryland  have  been  declared  unconstitutional,  and 
some  provisions  in  other  state  laws  and  other  state  qualifica- 
tions have  expired  because  of  time  limitations.  While 
these  laws  very  effectively  debar  most  negroes  from  vot- 
ing, the  negro  can  qualify  under  all  of  them;  in  fact,  it 
would  probably  be  impossible  to  frame  a  test  acceptable 
to  the  Supreme  Court  which  some  of  the  negroes  could 
not  ultimately  meet. 

On  the  whole,  the  effect  of  these  disfranchisement 
clauses  has  been  good,  for  they  have  disfranchised  the 
ignorant,  shiftless,  and  irresponsible  negro,  whose  ballot 
was  a  corrupting  element  in  politics.  Although  they  have 
undoubtedly  debarred  in  one  way  or  another  many  who 
are  able  to  vote  intelligently,  they  have  had,  in  the  main, 
a  beneficial  effect.  However,  any  law,  such  as  the 
Louisiana  law,  which  does  not  apply  equally  to  both  races 
is  not  fair  and  just.  If  the  negro  is  disfranchised  it  ought 
to  be  by  a  method  which  would  apply  to  both  races,  such 
as  a  literacy  test,  a  property  qualification,  or  a  tax-paying 
requirement.  Such  provisions  are  as  effective  as  the  others 
and  eliminate  the  vote  of  the  ignorant  and  shiftless  white 
as  well  as  that  of  the  ignorant  and  shiftless  negro.  If 
the  country  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment  was  a  mistake,  that  amendment  should  be 


The  American  Race  Problem  177 

repealed  as  a  whole  rather  than  nullified  by  state  legisla- 
tion. If  the  negro  can  qualify  the  same  as  the  white  man 
for  voting,  he  proves  that  he  is  worthy  of  the  ballot. 

One  bad  feature  of  the  application  of  the  literacy  test 
to  the  negro  alone  is  that  it  supplies  a  reason  to  the  white 
politician  for  not  giving  the  negro  as  good  educational 
facilities  as  are  given  the  white ;  in  other  words,  it  .tends 
to  discourage  negro  education,  for  the  chief  political  aim 
is  to  eliminate  not  merely  the  ignorant  negro  vote  but 
the  entire  negro  vote.  On  the  whole,  the  granting  of 
suffrage  to  the  negro  has  been  a  complete  failure.  The 
ballot  should  not  have  been  given  to  the  negroes  as  a 
race,  but  if  given  at  all,  it  should  have  been  held  as  an 
inducement  for  progress  by  being  granted  gradually,  that 
is,  as  soon  as  they  qualified  for  it  by  being  able  to  read 
and  write,  by  holding  a  certain  amount  of  property,  or 
by  the  payment  of  taxes.  Then  as  soon  as  they  qualified, 
they  would  have  known  how  to  use  the  voting  power  and 
would  not  have  formed  a  dangerous  element  in  politics; 
they  would  have  gained  suffrage  gradually,  not  in  suffi- 
cient numbers  to  control  politics. 

Negro  Problems. — 1.  Poverty  and  Pauperism. — Under 
economic  progress  we  have  considered  the  poor  economic 
condition  of  the  negro,  with  the  causes  which  produced 
it  and  some  of  the  effects  upon  other  phases  of  the  race 
problem.  We  saw  that  negroes  as  a  class  possess  little 
property,  and  that  the  majority  are  not  far  removed  from 
absolute  dependence.  We  have  no  reliable  statistics  as 
to  the  exact  or  even  approximate  amount  of  pauperism 
among  the  colored  people.  In  the  South  most  of  the 
paupers  are  negroes.  In  some  sections  nearly  all  the 
paupers  are  colored.  In  Charleston  it  is  asserted  that 
96  per  cent  of  the  pauper  funerals  are  of  negroes,  al- 
though the  negroes  make  up  only  53  per  cent  of  the 
population.  This  situation  is  only  the  natural  result  of 
the  indolence,  shiftlessness,  ignorance,  and  untrained  con- 
dition of  the  negro.  The  low  standard  of  living  of  the 
negro  is  the  most  serious  aspect  of  the  situation,  for 
pauperism  is  only  an  outgrowth.  The  negro  is  contented 


178  The  American  Race  Problem 

to  live  on  a  much  lower  plane  than  the  white,  because 
he  has  not  realized  the  need  of  living  on  a  higher  one. 
There  is  less  incentive  to  reach  this  higher  state  on  ac- 
count of  the  few  opportunities  he  has  for  advancement. 
The  economic  standard  of  living  must  be  raised  before 
the  present  poverty-stricken  condition  of  the  negro  can  be 
remedied.  To  raise  this  standard  the  negro  must  become 
industrially  more  productive  and  efficient. 

2.  Crime. — In  order  to  draw  a  comparison  between  the 
criminal  tendencies  of  the  white  and  colored  races,  let 
us  glance  at  the  following  table,  based  upon  figures  of 
the  U.  S.  Census  Bureau : 

Whites  Negroes 

Prisoners  in  3,198  prisons  in  1910 172,797  38,701 

Commitments  to  these  prisons  in  1910 368,468  110,319 

Prisoners  to  100,000  population,  1910 89  378 

Commitments  to  100,000  population,  1910..  425  1,079 

The  ratio  of  crime  for  the  negro  is  much  greater  in  the 
Northern  states  than  in  the  Southern,  there  being  in  1910 
722  prisoners  per  100,000  in  the  former  against  323  for 
the  latter.  This  is  owing  in  part  to  the  greater  temptation 
in  the  Northern  states  caused  by  the  living  in  cities,  in- 
dustrial ostracism  of  the  negroes,  and  the  larger  ratio 
of  mulattoes  who  are  much  more  addicted  to  crime  than 
the  pure  negro.  Added  to  this  is  the  lack  of  sympathy 
on  the  part  of  the  Northern  judge  who  does  not  under- 
stand negro  nature  and  is  less  inclined  to  let  him  off 
with  a  reprimand  or  upon  his  promise  to  go  to  work. 
The  Southern  white  is  much  more  ready  to  go  bail  for 
his  negro  employees  than  is  the  Northerner.  In  short, 
the  Southerner  knows  the  weaknesses  of  the  negro  and 
makes  allowance  for  them.  The  higher  rate  of  negro 
criminality  is  not  so  alarming  as  it  seems,  because  a  large 
percentage  of  it  is  made  up  of  minor  crimes,  such  as  petty 
larceny,  disorderly  conduct,  crap  shooting,  and  the  like. 
The  tendency  towards  theft  is  a  natural  outcome  of  the 
past  history  of  the  negro.  Under  slavery  if  he  obtained 
any  extras,  such  as  food  delicacies,  he  had  to  steal  them, 
and  it  is  only  natural  that  the  negro  should  continue  to 


The  American  Race  Problem  179 

steal.  Also  in  Africa  stealing  never  was  considered  a 
serious  offense.  In  certain  sections  of  the  South,  es- 
pecially the  Yazoo-Mississippi  Delta  region,  serious  crimes 
play  a  more  important  part ;  in  fact,  Stone  estimates  that 
crimes  against  the  person,  such  as  murder,  manslaughter, 
and  attempt  to  kill,  make  up  80  per  cent  of  the  offenses 
of  the  Delta  negroes.8 

This  unfavorable  condition  in  respect  to  crime  is  caused 
largely  by  poor  training,  especially  in  the  family,  result- 
ing, as  we  have  previously  noted,  from  the  past  history 
of  the  negro.  A  part  of  it,  moreover,  can  be  traced  to 
the  less  satisfactory  surroundings  of  the  negro,  especially 
in  our  cities,  for  the  negro  nearly  always  occupies  the 
poorest  part  of  the  town,  not  only  in  regard  to  sanitation 
and  desirability  of  location  wit  also  in  regard  to  im- 
provements. Poor  education,  especially  industrial,  is  like- 
wise responsible  for  a  large  share.  Thus  the  environ- 
mental factors  are  much  more  conducive  to  crime  by 
the  negro  than  by  the  white  man.  The  forces  holding 
him  back  are  weaker  and  the  temptations  confronting  him 
are  much  greater ;  therefore  it  is  only  reasonable  to  expect 
the  colored  man  to  have  a  higher  rate  of  criminality  than 
his  white  brother. 

Lynching  is  a  phase  of  punishment  for  negro  criminality 
more  damaging  to  the  reputation  of  the  white  man  than 
to  that  of  the  negro.  It  began  with  the  whipping  of 
negroes  for  minor  offenses,  such  as  stealing,  and  running 
away,  before  the  time  of  emancipation.  Since  then  more 
cruel  methods  have  come  into  use,  until  hanging  and 
burning  at  the  stake  have  come  to  be  the  favorite  methods 
of  execution.  The  statement  is  often  made  that  lynching 
is  for  the  one  crime  rape,  but  such  is  not  the  case,  and 
indeed  far  from  the  truth;  for  less  than  one-fourth  of 
the  lynching  of  negroes  is  for  assaults  upon  women. 
Lynchings  are  not  limited  to  the  colored  race,  nor  are 
they  confined  to  the  Southern  states.  Of  the  sixty-seven 
persons  lynched  in  1915  (thirteen  of  whom  were  white 
and  fifty-four  colored),  eleven  (ten  colored  and  one 

8  Stone,  Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem,  p.  106. 


180  TJie  American  Race  Problem 

white)  were  charged  with  rape ;  sixteen  (four  white  and 
twelve  colored)  with  murder;  nine  (three  white  and  six 
colored)  killing  officers  of  the  law;  three  wounding 
officers  of  the  law ;  a  family  of  four — father,  son,  and  two 
daughters — with  clubbing  an  officer  of  the  law;  three 
poisoning  mules;  two  stealing  hogs;  two  (white)  disre- 
garding warnings  of  night  riders ;  three  insulting  women ; 
two  entering  women's  rooms;  two  wounding  a  man;  one 
stealing  meat;  two  burglary;  one  robbery;  one  stealing 
cotton ;  one  charged  with  stealing  a  cow ;  two  furnishing 
ammunition  to  man  resisting  arrest ;  one  (white)  beating 
wife  and  child;  one  charged  with  being  accessory  to  the 
burning  of  a  barn.9  All  these  crimes  deserved  punish- 
ment, but  hardly  lynching. 

With  the  crime  of  rape,  especially  under  the  revolting 
circumstances  which  sometimes  attend  it,  one  can  under- 
stand but  not  condone  the  taking  of  law  into  one's  own 
hands;  the  temptation  is  terribly  strong,  and  people 
lose  control  of  themselves  under  such  conditions.  But 
this  sudden  and  extreme  punishment  of  the  lesser  crimes 
seems  to  have  no  justification  whatever.  To  be  sure  the 
action  of  the  law  is  often  slow  and  sometimes  justice  mis- 
carries, but  law  enforcement  should  be  improved,  not 
nullified  by  ultra-legal  measures.  Instances  have  hap- 
pened where  prisoners  convicted  by  law  and  waiting  the 
execution  of  the  death  penalty  have  been  taken  from  the 
hands  of  the  law  and  lynched.  The  most  unfortunate 
thing  about  lynching  is  that  it  does  not  stop  the  crime 
which  it  intends  to  punish;  it  often  increases  crime  by 
advertising  it  and — what  is  still  worse — brutalizes  the 
community.  Officers  of  the  law  are  too  cowardly  or  too 
biased  to  defend-  their  prisoners ;  so  they  surrender  them 
without  protest  or  defense. 

Lynching  has  caused  negroes  as  a  rule  to  hide  the  guilty 
person  and  to  sympathize  with  him,  rather  than  to  give 
him  up.  They  look  upon  lynching  as  an  attack  upon  the 
race,  rather  than  as  a  punishment  of  the  individual. 
Among  many  suggested  remedies  for  this  evil  are  segre- 

•  Negro  Year  Book,  1916-17,  p.  338. 


The  American  Race  Problem  181 

gation  of  the  colored  race  and  speedier  trials.  Both  would 
help,  but  the  problem  is  a  difficult  one  and  in  order  that 
lynching  may  be  completely  stopped,  sentiment  against 
it  must  be  created ;  it  is  a  disgrace  to  our  country.  While 
there  has  been  a  temporary  increase  since  the  World 
War,  the  problem  is  not  nearly  so  bad  as  formerly ;  less  than 
half  as  many  are  lynched  as  was  the  case  twenty-five 
[years  ago,  the  numbers  fluctuating  now  between  fifty  and 
seventy-five,  while  in  the  90 's  the  annual  average  was 
166.6.  The  chief  decrease  has  been  in  the  lynching  of 
white  men,  although  the  number  of  colored  persons 
lynched  has  decreased  about  50  per  cent.10  So  in  time 
we  may  outlive  this  horrible  result  of  race  friction. 

3.  Immorality  and  Vice. — No  reliable  statistics  can  be 
given  concerning  immorality  and  vice,  although  some  sta- 
tisticians have  attempted  to  show  that  between  one-fourth 
and  one-fifth  of  the  births  among  negroes  are  illegitimate. 
Immorality  flourishes  among  the  colored  population  far 
more  than  among  the  white,  not  only  because  of  the 
conditions  existing  among  the  negroes  during  the  times 
of  slavery,  but  also  because  of  their  past  history  in  Africa, 
where  the  climate  tended  to  the  preservation  of  those 
with  a  high  birth-rate  and  thus  caused  the  negro  to 
inherit  stronger  passions  than  the  white  man.     These, 
joined  with  his  weaker  will  power  and  greater  tempta- 
tion under  present  conditions,  naturally  produce  higher 
rates  of  irregularity  and  vice. 

4.  The  Mulatto. — The  position  of  the  mulatto  is  both 
serious  and  pathetic.    It  is  the  mulatto  who  causes  most 
trouble,  for  the  full-blooded  negro  generally  accepts  his 
position    of   inferiority   without    much    objection.      The 
mulatto  is  less  submissive,  for  he  usually  combines  the 
nervous  energy  of  his  white  father  with  the  physique  of 
his  colored  mother.     All  too  frequently  the  degenerate 
blood  of  some  of  the  best  families  in  America  flows  in 

10  Unofficial  returns  give  the  number  lynched  during  1921  at  sixty- 
three,  six  of  whom  were  white,  and  two  women,  as  against  sixty-five 
in  1920.  Murder  was  assigned  as  the  cause  of  eighteen  lynchings 
and  assaults  on  women  as  the  cause  of  nineteen,  the  balance  being 
for  miscellaneous  reasons. 


182  The  American  Hace  Problem 

his  veins.  The  leading  colored  men  have  nearly  always 
a  certain  amount  of  white  blood.  Biologically  the  cross- 
ing of  the  strains  as  a  rule  has  a  beneficial  effect,  and 
the  mixing  of  the  colored  and  the  white  races  is  no  excep- 
tion. But  the  trouble  comes  in  regard  to  the  mulatto's 
social  standing,  for  he  cannot  achieve  the  social  plane 
of  the  white.  He  must  accept  the  social  conditions  of 
the  negro  ancestor,  and  frequently  he  is  too  high-spirited 
to  do  this;  so  friction  results.  Besides  it  is  the  reckless 
and  immoral  element  of  the  white  population  that  mingles 
with  the  negro,  for  the  mulatto  is  in  nearly  all  cases 
illegitimate,  very  seldom  being  born  in  wedlock.  Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  many  white  slave-owners  cohabited  with 
their  female  slaves  and,  still  stranger,  some  white  youths 
of  all  classes  of  society  in  the  Southern  states,  even  to 
this  day,  have  thought  nothing  of  such  a  relationship- 
Of  course  these  relations  are  more  frequently  with  the 
colored  women  who  have  some  white  blood.  It  is  said 
that  a  good-looking  mulatto  girl  is  not  safe  from  white 
molestation.  As  a  natural  result  the  heredity  of  the 
mulatto  is  not  conducive  to  good  morals,  and  the  environ- 
ment simply  encourages  the  tendency.  The  mulatto  cannot 
be  accepted  by  the  whites,  even  if  he  is  almost  white,  because 
intermarriage  is  impossible  without  our  becoming  a  mu- 
latto race.  So  he  must  be  classed  as  a  negro.  Here  also 
his  color  is  a  problem,  causing  class  distinctions  and 
jealousies,  and  at  times  even  causing  social  ostracism 
within  the  race,  thus  being  a  problem  to  both  races.  One 
very  sad  phase  of  this  situation  is  the  fact  that  the 
percentage  of  those  of  mixed  blood  is  steadily  increasing. 
This  possibly  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  white  blood 
is  gradually  becoming  disseminated  throughout  the  entire 
colored  population.  But  on  the  whole  the  intermixture 
of  the  two  races  is  one  of  the  most  serious  aspects  of  the 
whole  negro  problem.  At  present  we  have  found  no  way 
in  which  to  cope  with  it. 

Proposed  Solutions  of  the  Negro  Problem. — So  far  as 
any  solution  or  any  definite  constructive  plan  of  action 
is  concerned,  the  negro  race  problem  is  the  most  difficult 


The  American  Race  Problem  183 

one  facing  the  student  of  American  sociology.  We  are 
obliged  to  admit  that,  as  far*  as  can  be  seen  now,  the 
problem  is  insoluble.  At  best  it  can  only  be  alleviated, 
the  race  friction  made  less  keen,  the  dangers  less  threaten- 
ing, and  the  rough  spots  smoothed  to  some  extent.  But 
even  here  there  is  no  uniformity  of  opinion;  the  differ- 
ences depend  largely  upon  the  section  of  country  which 
the  student  calls  his  home. 

Impossible  Solutions. — Before  we  take  up  any  plan 
of  action  worthy  of  serious  consideration  we  must  men- 
tion certain  plans  which  would  probably  not  be  conducive 
to  our  social  welfare,  among  which  are  the  following : 

1.  Absorption. — It   is    argued   that    since   the   negroes 
compose  only  one-tenth  of  our  population  we  could  in 
time  absorb  them  by  intermarriage ;  it  is  also  added  that 
the  crossing  of  the  races  would  be  advantageous.     We 
may  admit  that  the  crossing  might  not  be  disadvantageous 
physiologically — although  the  writer  personally  doubts  it % 
— but  we  simply  cannot  bear  the  thought  of  becoming  a 
mulatto  race,  and  that  is  what  we  should  come  to  if  we 
followed  this  plan.     Many  of  the  negro  characteristics, 
such  as  woolly  hair,  thick  lips  and  flat  nose,  are  dominant 
characteristics    and    would   tend    to    predominate.      We 
should  simply  become  a  hopelessly  mixed  race. 

2.  Equality. — The  question  is  brought  up:     Why  not 
give  the  negro  social  and  political  equality?    The  answer 
is:  The  races  are  not  equal;  the  white  race  has  back  of 
it  thousands  of  years  of  achievement  and  civilization,  and 
no  legislation  can  make  the  two  races  equal.     Then,  too, 
social  equality  would  lead  to  intermarriage,  else  it  would 
not  be  equality.    This  would  be  disastrous,  for  we  cannot 
absorb  the  negro ;  so  we  must  reject  any  plan  which  leads 
towards  attempted  absorption.     This  plan  is  not  offered 
by  anyone  who  is  at  all  familiar  with  the  negro  problem. 

3.  Colonization. — A  plan  of  colonization  was  advocated 
by  Thomas  Jefferson  and  has  often  been  proposed  by 
various  men  since  that  time.    It  has  been  opposed  in  the 
past  on  grounds  of  expense.    Now  it  is  impossible  because 
we  should  be  unable  to  find  any  place  to  send  the  negroes. 


184  The  American  Race  Problem 

All  the  available  sections  of  the  world  have  been  taken 
over  by  different  nations,  and  we  have  no  possessions  of 
our  own  which  are  suitable  for  the  purpose.  At  one  time 
this  plan  would  perhaps  have  been  the  best  method  of 
dealing  with  the  problem,  but  that  time  has  long  since 
passed;  in  fact,  it  probably  had  passed  before  colonization 
was  even  seriously  considered. 

Possible  Solutions. — 1.  Industrial  Education. — The  most 
plausible,  and  certainly  the  most  workable,  solution 
— if  we  can  call  any  program  a  solution — is  that  of 
industrial  education.  This  was  the  plan  originated  at 
Hampton  Institute,  in  Virginia,  but  popularized  by  the 
late  Booker  T.  Washington,  who  built  up  Tuskegee  In- 
stitute, in  Alabama,  so  successfully  upon  this  idea.  Wash- 
ington argues  that  under  present  conditions  the  attempt 
to  give  higher  education  to  the  negroes  is  misdirected 
energy,  because  the  negro  can  make  no  practical  use  of 
this  form  of  education.  The  only  sensible  way  to  educate 
the  negro,  he  said,  is  to  educate  his  hands,  so  that  he  can 
become  industrially  efficient  and  economically  independ- 
ent. With  economic  independence  the  negro  would  gain 
the  respect  of  the  white  man;  consequently  race  friction 
would  diminish.  If  the  negro  could  produce  he  would 
receive  good  wages  and  therefore  would  be  able  to  make 
better  provision  for  his  family.  Thus  the  standard  of 
living  of  the  negro  would  rise.  Other  schools  have  been 
founded  upon  this  plan  and  it  is  now  receiving  wide 
support.  Most  of  the  Southern  states  have  established 
mechanical  and  industrial  colleges  and  normal  schools  for 
the  colored  people.  In  addition  there  are  a  large  number 
of  smaller  private  institutions;  Alabama,  for  example, 
had  twenty-eight  in  1916.  Under  industrial  education 
the  negroes  would  be  able  to  become  efficient  farmers, 
carpenters,  blacksmiths,  bricklayers,  wheelwrights,  plas- 
terers, machinists,  plumbers,  tailors,  printers,  cooks,  etc., 
and  thus  they  would  be  able  to  build  a  foundation  for 
future  progress. 

2.  Segregation. — Another  proposed  solution  is  segre- 
gation, that  is,  the  separation  of  negroes  from  whites,  in 


The  American  Race  Problem  185 

order  that  each  race  may  live  unmolested  by  the  other. 
There  is,  however,  considerable  difference  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  best  form  of  segregation;  whether  segrega- 
tion shall  be  by  states,  by  counties,  by  towns,  or  only  by 
different  sections  of  the  same  town.  Each  of  these  plans 
offers  peculiar  advantages  and  difficulties.  With  state 
segregation  the  first  problem  would  be  as  to  what  state 
or  states  would  be  chosen;  then  what  steps  would  be 
taken  to  keep  the  negroes  in,  and  the  whites  out.  This 
plan  is  objected  to  on  the  ground  that  the  negroes  when 
separated  from  the  whites  lose  the  inspiration  of  their 
presence  and  quickly  sink  into  barbarism.  The  present 
condition  in  Liberia,  Haiti,  and  Santo  Domingo  is  given 
as  proof  of  this.  The  same  arguments  are  valid  to  a  less 
degree  in  regard  to  county  and  township  segregation; 
at  the  same  time  the  advantages  which  would  be  derived 
amount  to  less.  If  the  negroes  are  herded  into  certain 
sections  of  counties  or  towns,  these  sections  will  be  the 
least  desirable  and  will  not  receive  the  same  improve- 
ments as  the  white  sections;  the  result  would  be  the 
formation  of  slum  districts.  Moreover  this  is  the  condi- 
tion which  practically  prevails  to-day,  for  the  colored 
people  as  a  rule  live  in  definite  sections  in  our  cities  and 
towns ;  these  sections  are  unkept,  unsanitary,  and  unsafe ; 
they  are  responsible  to  a  large  degree  for  the  abnormal 
amount  of  poverty,  crime,  and  immorality  found  among 
the  negroes.  In  fact,  it  is  argued  that  this  is  the  veryj 
condition  from  which  we  wish  to  escape.  Against  the 
proposal  of  segregation  the  argument  is  advanced  that 
the  South  needs  the  negro  and  the  negro  needs  the  South. 
That  the  white  man  needs  the  negro  to  work  for  him, 
and  the  negro  needs  the  white  man  for  moral  support. 
The  supporters  of  this  plan  answer  that  segregation  need 
not  be  rapid  or  even  arbitrary,  but  that  voluntarily  and 
gradually  the  negroes  should  be  encouraged  to  move  into 
districts  by  themselves,  and  the  whites  should  be  en- 
couraged to  move  out.  The  difficulty  with  such  a  solution 
is  the  grave  doubt  as  to  whether  it  ever  would  be  carried 
out  unless  it  was  made  compulsory;  and  if  made  thus 


186  The  American  Race  Problem 

drastic  it  would  cause  much  hardship  and  bitterness. 
While  segregation  may  ultimately  be  the  solution,  it  is 
at  present  chiefly  a  matter  of  theory. 

3.  Caste. — A  caste  system  is  the  viewpoint  of  the  aver- 
age Southerner  and  the  practice  at  present  in  the  South. 
It  is  based  upon  the  belief  in  the  inferiority  of  the  negro 
as  a  race;  that  he  is  only  halfway  between  the  animals 
and  the  white  man;  that  in  consequence  he  is  fitted  by 
nature  only  to  be  a  servant  and  to  do  the  rougher,  heavier 
work  of  the  world;  that  he  never  will  be  able  to  catch 
up  with  the  white  man,  and  because  of  this,  social  equality 
' — or  any  policy  which  would  tend  towards  absorption — is 
impossible;  and  that,  therefore,  the  only  way  to  handle 
the  negro  is  to  treat  him  as  an  inferior,  allowing  him 
to  mingle  with  the  white  man  but  not  as  an  equal;  and 
that  the  white  man  needs  him  for  this  purpose  in  order1 
to  devote  his  own  time  to  higher  endeavors.    At  present 
this  is  probably  the  only  attitude  that  we  can  take  to- 
wards the  negro  where  he  exists  in  any  great  numbers, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  a  solution ;  it  is  the  very  condition 
which  we  are  attempting  to  solve.     We  constantly  hear 
the  remark,  "keep  the  negro  in  his  place,"  and  according 
to  the  caste  idea  that  place  is  beneath  the  white  man. 
Absorption  or  amalgamation  of  any  kind  is  impossible, 
and  the  negro  must  be  kept  in  his  place;  but  that  place 
need  not  necessarily  be  beneath  the  feet  of  the  white 
man.     The  black  may  be  allowed,  so  far  as  his  abilities 
permit,  to  carve  out  his  own  place,  provided  that  place 
is  distinct  and   separate  from  that   of  the  white  man. 
Under  present  conditions  of  colored  inferiority,  mental, 
moral,  and  industrial,  the  caste  viewpoint  is  almost  the 
only  attitude  we  can  take  towards  the  negro — that  is,  a 
sane  and  sensible  caste  attitude — but  as  a  permanent 
solution  it  is  impossible,  for  it  does  not  remove  the  present 
difficulties. 

4.  Local   Option. — A   local   option   plan   is   offered   by 
Thomas  Nelson  Page,  who  suggests  that  since  there  are 
as  many  problems  as  there  are  communities,  let  each  com- 
munity work  out  its  own  salvation.    On  the  whole  this  is 


The  American  Race  Problem  187 

a  sane  way  of  looking  at  the  matter,  yet  the  question 
arises,  will  every  community  solve  its  race  problem?  Is 
the  average  community  able  to  do  so  wisely?  Certainly 
this  plan  is  not  radical  and  will  cause  no  commotion — 
but  the  question  is  whether  it  will  do  anything. 

5.  Compound  Solution. — To  the  present  writer  no  one 
method  seems  practicable.  Any  plan  of  action  which  is 
at  all  effective  must  embody  the  best  elements  of  all  of 
those  previously  discussed.  The  first  step  under  our 
present  conditions  is  undoubtedly  industrial  education, 
in  order  to  make  the  negro  more  efficient  and  economically 
productive.  To  accomplish  this  we  should  increase  both 
in  number  and  effectiveness  such  schools  as  Tuskegee 
and  Hampton,  establish  them  all  over  the  South,  and 
compel  the  colored  children  to  attend  them  in  the  same 
manner  that  we  compel  white  children  to  go  to  our  schools. 
This  will  make  the  negro  efficient,  so  that  he  will  have 
no  cause  to  fear  an  immigrant  invasion  of  the  South. 
Also  it  will  enable  him  to  increase  his  wealth  and  raise 
his  standard  of  living,  and  in  this  way  solve  many  of  his 
problems. 

As  a  second  step,  gradual  segregation  should  be  en- 
couraged, not  only  in  towns  and  counties  but  possibly 
even  in  states.  Gradually  encourage  the  negro  to  move 
into  those  regions  best  adapted  to  him,  such  as  the  Yazoo- 
Mississippi  Delta  region.  As  soon  as  the  negro  is  efficient 
and  worthy  of  it  and  outnumbers  the  whites  in  any  dis- 
trict, he  might  have  a  share  in  the  government,  at  least 
in  those  phases  of  government  which  come  into  contact 
with  the  negro  population.  This  would  hasten  the  moving 
out  of  the  whites  and  the  moving  in  of  the  negroes.  As 
efficiency  and  race  pride  develop,  the  negro  will  desire 
to  be  by  himself  and  will  speed  this  movement. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  negro  can  make  use  of  it,  encourage 
higher  education  that  he  may  provide  his  own  doctors, 
lawyers,  ministers,  and  teachers.  At  present  there  is  a' 
growing  demand  among  the  colored  people  for  their  own 
dentists,  doctors,  lawyers,  and  teachers.  They  have  al- 
ways had  their  own  ministers  of  a  sort,  but  the  demand 


188  The  American  Race  Problem 

now  is  for  trained  ministers.  As  segregation  increases, 
this  demand  will  increase.  Thus  the  negro  will  be  indus- 
trially self-sufficient,  professionally  independent,  and  will 
be  able  to  work  out  his  own  salvation.  As  he  becomes 
educated  and  self-reliant  and  has  a  definite  field  of  action, 
race  friction  will  tend  to  diminish,  for  the  white  will  not 
fear  him  but  will  respect  him  the  more,  and  the  negro 
will  not  feel  his  own  inferiority  but  will  attempt  to  work 
out  his  own  problems.  Along  with  this  there  will  develop 
race  pride,  admiration  for  the  negro  characteristics,  and 
a  final  separation  of  the  races.  This  plan  is  not  offered 
as  the  only  solution,  but  merely  suggested  as  a  partial 
program.  The  whole  problem  is  too  complicated  and  in- 
volved to  admit  of  definite  solution  at  this  time. 


READING  REFERENCES 

WASHINGTON,  B.  T.,  The  Story  of  the  Negro,  the  Eise  of  the 

Race  From  Slavery.    Two  volumes. 

WASHINGTON,  B.  T.,  The  Future  of  the  American  Negro. 
WASHINGTON,  B.  T.,  Working  With  the  Hands. 
WASHINGTON,  B.  T.,  Up  From  Slavery. 
STONE,  A.  H.,  Studies  in  the  American  Eace  Problem. 
MECKLIN,  J.  M.,  Democracy  and  Eace  Friction. 
BAKER,  R.  S.,  Following  the  Color  Line. 
PAGE,  T.  N.,  The  Negro,  the  Southerner's  Problem. 
DuBois,  W.  E.  D.,  Souls  of  Black  Folks. 
DuBois,  W.  E.  D.,  The  Philadelphia  Negro. 
TILLINGHAST,  J.  A.,  The  Negro  in  Africa  and  America. 
PHILIPS,  U.  B.,  American  Negro  Slavery. 
DOWD,  J.,  The  Negro  Races,  two  volumes, 

RATZEL,  F.,  History  of  Mankind,  Book  IV,  "The  Negro  Races." 
WOLFE,  A.  B.,-  Readings  in  Social  Problems,  Book  V. 
Annals  of  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 

Sept.,  1913,  "The  Negro's  Progress  in  Fifty  Years." 
The  Negro  Tear  Book. 


PART  THREE 

CHAPTER  X 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  FAMILY 

The  Family  a  Social  Unit. — The  primary  function  of 
the  family — in  fact,  the  leading  reason  for  its  existence — 
has  always  been  to  bring  children  into  the  world  and 
to  rear  them.  The  protecting  of  the  offspring  by  the 
parents  is,  however,  a  function  not  confined  to  man,  but 
is  one  found  among  practically  all  the  higher  animals. 
Many  animals  so  train  their  young  as  to  make  them  able 
to  cope  with  life  and  to  care  for  themselves.  This  train- 
ing, to  be  sure,  is  generally  given  by  only  one  parent — 
the  mother — but  this  is  also  true  of  man  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  his  existence.  But  from  this  primary  function 
of  reproduction  and  protection  other  functions  have 
sprung  until  the  family  has  become  a  social  center  and, 
as  many  sociologists  assert,  the  unit  of  society.  This 
aspect  of  family  life  has  become  so  prominent  that  many 
people  look  with  alarm  upon  the  present-day  tendency 
for  the  family  to  lose  some  of  its  importance.  The  family 
has  been  likewise  the  center  of  intellectual  and  moral 
instruction.  Formerly  these  activities  were  much  more 
important  than  they  are  to-day,  for  the  family  has  given 
over  much  of  this  responsibility  to  other  agencies. 

Almost  all  of  the  interests,  customs,  and  problems  of 
society  originate  with  the  family.  Division  of  labor 
originated  in  the  family  with  the  specialization  of  duties 
between  man  and  woman.  Even  nowadays  the  occupation 
one  chooses  depends  largely  upon  the  occupation  of  one's 
parent  and  upon  home  training.  It  is  the  same  with 
religion;  one  is  likely  to  follow  the  religious  views  of 
one's  parents.  Moreover  we  find  that  this  has  always 

189 


190  Evolution  of  the  Family 

been  the  custom,  and  that  it  was  even  more  effectively; 
so  in  the  past  than  in  modern  times.  Formerly  the  father 
was  the  family  priest;  ancestor  worship  followed  conse- 
quently ;  then  belief  in  spirits.  Property  to-day  descends 
through  the  family,  and  has  nearly  always  done  so,  al- 
though at  first  it  descended  through  the  female  line  rather 
than  the  male.  The  care  of  the  dependent,  the  old,  the 
sick,  and  the  afflicted,  as  well  as  of  the  young,  has  fallen 
upon  the  family,  and  it  has  been  only  in  recent  years  that 
the  family  has  to  any  great  extent  tried  to  shift  this 
burden  to  the  state. 

The  causes  of  most  of  the  problems  of  society  are  easily 
traced  back  to  the  family — to  the  early  training  (or  per- 
haps lack  of  training),  as  well  as  to  the  conditions  for 
which  heredity  itself  is  responsible.  The  strongest  en- 
vironment is  the  environment  of  early  life,  that  of  the 
home.  It  is  the  training  received  in  the  home  that  has 
the  most  to  do  with  the  shaping  of  the  after  life.  This 
is  true  not  only  of  criminals,  immoral  persons  and  de- 
generates, but  also  of  the  poor  as  a  class.  Because  of 
these  facts  a  study  of  sociology,  no  matter  how  brief, 
would  be  incomplete  without  some  consideration  of  the 
family.  To  find  out  why  our  present-day  family  takes 
the  form  that  it  does  we  must  consider  the  different  stages 
through  which  it  has  passed.  We  must  find  the 
causes  behind  the  changes  and  the  forces  that  have  been 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  family,  and  have  helped  in  its 
molding.  This  study  must  necessarily  cover  periods  prior 
to  those  recorded  in  written  history,  for  before  there  was 
history  even  to  record  there  was  a  form  of  the  family. 
It  is  extremely  difficult  to  draw  any  really  accurate 
descriptions  of  the  early  family  because  of  its  antiquity, 
but  the  following  more  or  less  definite  stages  can  be 
noted : 

The  Horde. — Some  writers  claim  that  there  was  a' 
period  when  man  roamed  over  the  earth  in  bands,  living 
an  animal-like  existence.  Some  authorities,  including 
McLennan  and  Morgan,  declare  that  this  was  the  con- 
dition during  the  lowest  stages  of  savagery,  when  there 


Evolution  of  the  Family  191 

was  no  real  family,  as  we  know  it  to-day,  but  instead 
only  the  horde ;  that  there  was  no  such  institution  as 
marriage,  and  no  restraint  upon  the  sexual  passions,  but 
that  promiscuity  was  universal  and  physical  force  the 
prevailing  law.  They  think  that  during  this  period  the 
child  was  brought  up  entirely  by  the  mother,  the  father 
feeling  no  responsibility  in  its  behalf,  and  the  child  not 
even  knowing  its  own  father.  In  fact,  some  writers  go 
so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  father  was  entirely  uncon- 
scious of  paternity,  and  that  children  vvere  not  sought, 
but  were  the  results  of  human  passions.  Consequently 
the  burden  of  bringing  up  the  child  fell  inevitably  upon 
the  mother.  This  situation  was  not  so  severe  upon  the 
mother  as  it  would  be  under  present  conditions  of  society, 
for  that  was  the  period  of  the  direct  appropriation  of  the 
gifts  of  nature. 

That  man  wandered  around  during  this  prehistoric 
period,  living  a  more  or  less  animal-like  existence,  there 
is  no  doubt ;  but  many  authorities,  the  foremost  of  whom 
is  "Westermarck,  affirm  that  monogamy  was  the  general 
rule  and  promiscuity  the  exception,  even  if  man  did  live 
in  bands.  They  admit,  of  course,  that  such  a  condition 
of  monogamy  would  differ  much  from  our  own  idea  of 
monogamy,  but  they  declare  that  man  went  in  pairs  for 
a  more  or  less  definite  period  of  time,  at  least  until  the 
child  was  born  and  was  old  enough  for  the  mother  to 
care  for  alone.  Against  a  state  of  general  promiscuity 
they  range  three  arguments,  which  Westermarck  sum- 
marizes as  follows  (a  fourth  argument  is  supplied  by  the 
writer) : 

1.  Zoological. — Among  the  higher  animals  a  more  or  less 
definite  system  of  flfliriny  is  found,  and  monogamy  is  the 
rule  rather  than  the  exception.     This  argument  is  illus- 
trated by  such  animals   as  the  anthropoid   apes,   some 
members    of    the    cat    family,    squirrels,    seals,    whales, 
gazelles,  reindeer,  hippopotamuses,  and  especially  birds. 

2.  Physiological. — Promiscuity  tends  to  produce  infer- 
tility.    Although   not   every    group    which   intermarries 
becomes    degenerate,  owing    to    the    strength    of    some 


192  Evolution  of  tlie  Family 

original  group,  yet  degeneracy  is  a  probable  result  of 
intermarriage.  Recognition  of  this  fact  results  in  laws 
forbidding  incest  and  intermarriage. 

3.  Psychological. — .TJie^  universal   prevalence   of_sexjial 
jealousy  tends  to  uphold  monogamy.    I'his,  according  to 
AVestermarek,  is  the  strongest  argument  against  promis- 
cuity.   Pairing  would  be  the  result  of  mutual  attraction 
even  under  prehistoric  conditions,  each  person  selecting 
as  a  mate    one  whom  he  or  she  preferred  to  any  other, 
and  it  would  only  be  natural  that  they  would  rather  re- 
main together  even  in  the  absence  of  authority  designed  to 
compel  them  to  do  so.     At  any  rate  they  would  remain 
together  till -they  grew  tired  of  each  other,  or  until  one 
of  them  met  some  one  else  that  appealed  to  him  or  her 
more.      Since    man    has    always    been    gregarious    and 
naturally  prefers  a  companion  of  the   opposite  sex,  it 
would  only  be  logical  for  the  pairs  thus  mated  to  remain 
more  or  less  permanently  joined. 

4.  Biological  Necessity. — Nature  has  always  safeguarded 
each  of  her  creations.    If  the  danger  is  great,  the  animal 
is  especially  protected.     Fishes  and  lower  forms  of  life 
are  protected  by  a  heavy  birth-rate,  thousands  of  eggs 
being  laid  at  a  time.    As  the  species  rises  in  the  scale  of 
life  the  number  of  offspring  decreases  but  the  care  of 
the  parents  for  the  young  increases.     If  the  animal  is 
helpless  at  birth,  as  is  the  case  with  birds,  the  parents 
look  after  the  young.     Man  has  a  very  low  birth-rate 
as  compared  with  most  animals  and  the  period  of  infancy 
is  greatly  prolonged ;  so  care  by  the  parents  is  absolutely 
necessary.    In  addition,  the  mother  is  especially  helpless 
at  the  period  of  childbirth  and  needs  the  protection  of 
the  male.     This  argument,  which  we  may  call  biological 
necessity  for  the  lack  of  a  better  name,  is  strongly  against 
the  existence  of  any  general  state  of  promiscuity. 

Whether  there  ever  was  such  a  period  as  the  horde,  in 
which  either  promiscuity  or  a  modified  form  of  monogamy 
prevailed,  is  not  and  probably  never  will  be  definitely 
known.  Whatever  the  conditions  were,  the  family  ties 
could  not  have  been  very  strong  at  that  time ;  but  as  man 


Evolution  of  the  Family  193 

progressed  they  became  stronger.  The  father  also  grew 
to  feel  a  responsibility,  at  least  in  part,  for  the  rearing 
of  the  children,  and  so  came  to  contribute  more  and  more 
towards  their  support.  As  the  races  began  to  settle  down, 
this  trend  developed  a  period  generally  known  as  ma- 
triarchy or  woman  rule,  in  regard  to  which  there  is  like- 
wise a  considerable  difference  of  opinion,  both  as  to  its 
length  and  importance. 

Matriarchy. — 1.  Different  Views  on  This  Subject. — 
Bachofen,  who  is  generally  given  the  credit  for  the 
authorship  of  this  theory,  considered  that  there  was  once 
a  period,  indefinite  in  length,  during  which  woman  ruled. 
Some  writers,  including  the  late  Professor  "Ward,  go  so 
far  as  to  say  that  woman  ruled  because  she  was  the 
stronger  of  the  two  physically,  and  that  she  ruled  until 
she  lost  this  superiority  of  physique.  Others  on  the  con- 
trary deny  that  there  ever  was  such  a  period.  However, 
practically  all  the  leading  authorities  to-day  recognize 
some  form  of  matriarchy,  although  no  two  definitely 
agree,  and  no  one  is  altogether  clear  in  his  account  of 
this  period.  Some  think  that  the  period  was  a  long  one, 
lasting  possibly  thousands  of  years;  others  that  it  was 
comparatively  short;  and  still  others  that  it  was  only  a 
transitional  stage,  and  in  many  races  skipped  entirely. 

At  any  rate  there  was  a  period  in  which  mother  right 
prevailed  and  during  which  kinship  was  traced  through 
the  female.  This  was  largely  ascribable  to  the  fact  that 
the  mother  had  more  to  do  with  the  rearing  of  the  off- 
spring than  the  father.  Besides,  the  father  was  not 
always  known;  and  even  when  he  was  known,  his  con- 
nection with  childbirth  was  not  clearly  understood, 
because  of  ignorance  of  the  laws  of  reproduction,  preg- 
nancy being  among  some  peoples  attributed  to  magic  or 
to  a  superhuman  power.  Also  at  this  time  the  father 
was  a  hunter  and  roamer,  while  the  mother  had  a  more 
or  less  definite  place  of  abode.  Naturally  she  ruled  the 
children  and  had  influence  over  the  grown  daughters  till 
they  married,  and  to  some  extent  over  the  grown  sons; 
from  this  fact  there  followed  a  measure  of  deference  to 


194  Evolution  of  the  Family 

the  female.  But  at  this  period  in  the  world's  history 
no  such  thing  as  political  government  had  developed;  so 
woman  could  not  have  ruled  in  the  sense  Bachofen  meant. 

2.  Polyandry. — Polyandry,  the  possession  by  one  woman 
of  more  than  one  husband,  developed  as  a  system  under 
matriarchy,  just  as  polygyny,  the  marriage  of  one  man  to 
more  than  one  woman,  developed  under  the  later  period 
of  patriarchy.  Sometimes  a  woman  would  have  more 
than  one  suitor,  especially  in  countries  where  there  was 
a  scarcity  of  women,  a  situation  brought  about  by  infan- 
ticide, or  where  conditions  of  living  made  it  impossible 
for  one  man  to  support  a  wife  alone — and  she  would 
practice  polyandry.  This  system  did  not,  however,  be- 
come universal  because  of  the  almost  equal  number  of 
individuals  in  the  two  sexes;  in  fact  it  has  been  rather 
the  exception.  Yet  it  has  survived  even  to  the  present 
among  a  few  peoples,  as  in  Ceylon,  Tibet,  and  Assam. 

Howard  divides  polyandry  into  two  types:  (1)  The 
Nair  type,  in  which  the  wife  lives  with  her  mother  or 
brothers  and  is  free  to  choose  her  husbands  or  lovers, 
who  need  not  be  related  to  each  other.  Kinship  is  traced 
through  the  female  line,  and  property  descends  in  the 
same  fashion.  "No  Nair  knows  his  father  and  every  man 
looks  upon  his  sister's  children  as  his  heirs."1  In  a 
transitional  stage  the  wife  has  a  home  of  her  own,  cohabit- 
ing with  her  husbands  according  to  fixed  rules.  Generally 
each  lives  with  her  a  certain  set  period,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  gives  way  to  the  next  man.  This  is  easily 
managed  when  all  the  husbands  live  in  the  same  village, 
but  if  they  come  from  separate  localities  they  sometimes 
become  confused  in  regard  to  dates,  in  which  case  trouble 
is  liable  to  ensue.  (2)  The  Tibetan  type,  which  is  con- 
sidered a  higher  form.  The  wife  lives  in  the  home  of 
her  husbands,  who  are  usually  brothers.  The  eldest 
brother  generally  chooses  the  wife  and  claims  as  his  all 
the  children. 

Among  the  Todas  of  India  monogamy  and  polyandry 

1  Howard,  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions,  quoting  from 
Buchanan. 


Evolution  of  the  Family  195 

exist  side  by  side.  A  man  may  choose  his  own  wife  and 
pay  the  dower  to  her  parents ;  or,  with  the  consent  of  all 
parties  his  brothers  may  participate  in  the  marriage,  each 
one  contributing  his  share  of  the  dower.  In  either  case 
property  and  kinship  are  traced  through  the  male  line. 
McLennan  believed  that  the  Tibetan  type  was  quite  com- 
mon, but  it  is  not  so  considered  to-day. 

3.  Inheritance  in  Matriarchy. — As  a  rule  inheritance, 
like  kinship,  was  traced  through  the  female.     This,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  universal,  differing  with  the  various 
tribes  and  varying  conditions.    As  civilization  progresses 
we  find  a  tendency  toward  descent  through  the  male. 

4.  Economic  Argument  in  Regard  to  Matriarchy. — An- 
other condition  that  we  find  accompanying  matriarchy 
is  that  it  appears  strongest  as  a  system  in  the  countries 
where  the  work  of  the  women  is  economically  more  impor- 
tant than  the  work  of  men — countries  which  are  adapted 
to  agriculture  rather  than  hunting  or  fishing  or  pastoral 
life.     Because  as  a  mere  laborer  woman  produces  more, 
she  is  naturally  more  important  than  man  and  so  has 
the  more  to  say  in  regard  to  the  life  of  the  family.    But 
as  soon  as  animals  are  domesticated  for  use  in  agriculture 
and  slave  labor  is  utilized,  the  tables  are  turned,  for  man 
is  better  adapted  to  train  animals  and  to  manage  slaves 
and  servants.    In  countries  adapted  to  hunting  and  fish- 
ing or  pastoral  life  man  always  has  been  the  leader,  for 
under  such  circumstances  his  work  has  been  the  more 
productive.    For  this  reason  we  find  that  in  some  coun- 
tries the  period  of  matriarchy  was  long  and  important, 
while  in  others  it  was  short  and  unimportant,  and  in 
some  cases  passed  over  entirely. 

Along  the  same  line  we  find  that  polygyny  is  more  apt 
to  prevail  in  countries  where  food  is  abundant,  and 
polyandry  where  living  is  desperately  hard.  In  countries 
where  neither  extreme  prevails  and  property  and  oppor- 
tunity are  more  equally  divided,  monogamy  is  apt  to  be 
the  general  rule. 

5.  Exogamy  and  Endogamy. — These  two  customs  have 
no    special    connection   with   matriarchy,    but    as    they, 


196  Evolution  of  the  Family 

developed  during  the  same  period  they  may  be  considered 
here.  Endogamy,  or  the  compelling  of  one  to  marry 
within  one 's  group,  is  of  comparatively  slight  importance. 
It  principally  took  the  form  of  group  marriages,  a  cer- 
tain group  of  men  marrying  with  a  certain  group  of 
women.  These  groups  were  usually  composed  of  brothers 
or  sisters  or  those  closely  related.  In  such  groups  each 
man  had  a  preferential  right  to  one  woman,  and  a 
secondary  right  to  every  other  woman. 

The  general  practice,  however,  has  always  been 
exogamy,  or  the  compelling  of  a  man  to  go  outside  of 
his  or  her  group  for  a  partner.  This  system  is  maintained 
to-day  among  all  civilized  races  by  forbidding  the  mar- 
riage of  near  relatives.  It  results  from  the  necessity  of 
preventing  degeneracy  and,  according  to  Westermarck, 
from  the  universal  horror  of  incest.  It  is  almost  as 
•universal  among  savage  tribes  as  it  is  in  civilized  groups. 
Among  some  tribes  in  Central  Australia  the  tribe  is 
divided  into  two  classes;  the  man  is  then  compelled  to 
choose  his  wife  from  the  opposite  class.  The  Kamilaroi, 
aborigines  of  Australia,  are  divided  into  six  gentes,  each 
of  which  is  named  after  an  animal.  Formerly  members 
of  the  first  three  could  marry  only  into  the  last  three, 
but  later  custom  grew  more  lax  and  inter-marriage  is 
allowed  into  any  gens  except  one's  own.  Descent  is  traced 
through  the  female  line,  giving  the  children  to  the  gens 
of  the  mother. 

This  condition  has  been  found  among  nearly  all  the 
American  Indians  but  especially  among  the  Iroquois,  who 
furnish  us  the  best  example  of  such  a  system.  The 
Iroquois  or  Six  Nations,  as  they  were  frequently  called, 
were  divided  into  eight  gentes,  which  took  the  names  of 
animals.  Not  all  of  these  gentes,  however,  were  repre- 
sented in  each  tribe.  Each  individual  had  to  go  outside 
of  his  own  gens  to  marry,  and  as  among  the  Australians, 
descent  was  at  first  traced  through  the  female.  The  male 
went  to  live  in  the  gens  of  his  wife,  where  he,  except 
in  rare  cases,  was  looked  upon  as  an  outsider;  he  very 
often  had  little  influence  in  the  management  of  affairs 


Evolution  of  the  Family  197 

The  head  was  the  eldest  unmarried  brother  of  the  woman, 
and  the  honor  of  headship  descended  to  the  oldest  un- 
married male  in  the  family.  This  system  later  changed ; 
descent  became  transmitted  through  the  male  line,  thus 
ending  matriarchy. 

Exogamy  was  brought  about  to  a  great  extent  by  wife 
capture,  woman  stealing  being  a  mark  of  successful  war- 
fare, indicating  prowess.  Furthermore,  a  female  thus 
acquired  had  an  economic  value,  since  she  served  her 
husband  not  only  as  wife  or  concubine  but  also  as  drudge 
or  slave.  From  this  practice  exogamy  developed  till  it 
became  the  custom.  Because  of  the  fact  that  those  tribes 
that  practiced  exogamy  survived,  while  those  that  prac- 
ticed endogamy  did  not,  exogamy  came  to  have  the  sanc- 
tion of  law  and  religion.  However,  there  are  many 
classical  examples  of  sister  marriages,  as  among  the 
Ptolemies  of  Egypt  and  the  kings  of  ancient  Persia, 
where  the  desire  was  to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  caste 
or  of  the  royal  blood.  Sister  marriages  are  even  to-day 
found  in  Ceylon  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  But  exogamy 
has  always  been  the  general  rule  whether  from  necessity 
or  choice,  or  both. 

Patriarchy. — From  matriarchy,  or  the  rule  of  woman, 
the  pendulum  swung  to  the  opposite  extreme,  that 
of  patriarchy  or  the  rule  of  man,  where  the  father 
was  the  head  of  the  house  and  ruled  not  only  his  wife 
and  children  but  also  his  children's  families.  He  ruled 
supremely  as  long  as  he  lived,  his  wife  frequently  being 
his  slave,  and  was  succeeded  upon  his  death  by  his  eldest 
son.  Sir  Henry  Maine,  in  his  "Ancient  Law,"  published 
in  1867,  advanced  the  theory  that  this  was  the  primitive 
form  of  the  family  and  that  the  further  back  we  go  in 
history  the  more  wretched  we  find  the  condition  of  woman 
to  have  been.  The  trouble  with  his  theory  was  that  ho 
did  not  go  back  far  enough  into  history  but  based  his 
deductions  altogether  upon  the  early  Roman  family, 
which  his  book  pictures.  It  is  true  that  in  early  Rome 
the  father  had  the  right  of  life  and  death  over  his  wife 


198  Evolution  of  the  Family 

and  children.  Although  woman  was  respected  on  account* 
of  her  virtue,  her  life  was  hard  and  the  treatment  ac- 
corded her  often  cruel. 

In  ancient  Greece,  woman  was  kept  at  home;  but  while 
she  occupied  a  much  lower  place  than  the  Roman  woman, 
she  was  more  humanely  treated.  She  was  uneducated  and 
forbidden  to  mingle  in  society.  Her  whole  duty  was  to 
rear  children  for  her  husband.  The  Greek  husband  did 
not  abuse  his  wife;  in  fact  he  had  little  to  do  with  her, 
for  he  spent  his  time  away  from  home  talking  politics 
and  philosophy,  practicing  or  watching  athletics,  or 
listening  to  orations.  When  he  craved  female  companion- 
ship he  sought  it  from  the  Hetairii  or  public  women,  who, 
being  generally  foreigners,  were  educated  and  nearly 
equal  to  him  intellectually.  "While  this  was  not  the  con- 
dition among  all  the  Greeks,  it  was  among  many  of  them 
especially  the  Athenians  and  lonians,  among  whom  the 
men  were  highly  educated;  their  wives  were  densely 
ignorant,  being  thought  unworthy  of  an  education. 

In  Sparta  there  was  much  greater  equality.  Among 
Aryan  peoples,  however,  woman  was  never  reduced  to 
slavery,  and  in  general  she  has  exercised  joint  control 
over  the  children,  who  were  released  from  parental 
authority  when  they  married  and  established  homes  of 
their  own. 

According  to  the  Hindu  conception  the  wife  was  re- 
garded as  incapable  of  holding  property  and  so  neither 
the  wife  nor  the  daughters  could  inherit  property.  Still 
the  bride  possessed  her  own  personal  belongings — her 
couch,  clothing,  and  ornaments — and  from  this  germ  there 
probably  arose  the  present  rights  of  property  and  in- 
heritance. In  other  countries  we  find  similar  develop- 
ment. Gradually  the  position  of  woman  has  risen  from 
that  of  a  mere  chattel  or  piece  of  merchandise  in  her 
husband's  household  to  her  present  condition,  which  in 
most  countries  is  even  yet  inferior  to  that  of  man,  but 
which  is  constantly  rising.  In  a  few  countries  her  status 
has  reached  a  plane  almost  equal  to  that  of  man. 


Evolution  of  the  Family  199 

Polygyny.2 — Under  patriarchy  we  find  polygyny,  or 
the  marriage  of  one  man  to  more  than  one  woman. 
Usually  there  was  one  preferred  wife;  often  the  others 
were  concubines  or  slaves.  Many  examples  are  given 
in  the  Bible,  as  in  the  cases  of  Jacob,  David,  and  particu- 
larly Solomon,  who  is  said  to  have  had  700  wives  and 
300  concubines.  In  fact,  as  Westermarck  says,  it  was  so 
much  the  matter  of  course  that  the  law  did  not  even 
criticize  it.  A  man  was  allowed  as  many  wives  as  he 
was  able  to  support.  This  practice  was  made  possible 
for  at  least  the  wealthy  and  the  rulers,  by  the  killing 
of  so  many  men  in  war  and  by  the  custom  of  slavery, 
which  appeared  in  the  pastoral  and  agricultural  stages 
of  civilization,  especially  in  the  Eastern  countries.  Polyg- 
yny is  found  to-day  in  Turkey,  Arabia,  India,  China, 
and  even  Japan.  It  is  also  practiced  among  many  African 
tribes,  and  until  very  recently  was  openly  practiced 
among  the  Mormons  of  the  United  States,  who  regarded 
it  as  a  divine  institution  devised  in  order  more  rapidly 
to  populate  the  earth. 

While  polygyny  has  been  permitted  among  savage  and 
barbarous  peoples,  it  has  not  been,  and  in  fact  could  not 
be,  the  universal  custom,  because  of  the  almost  equal 
number  of  individuals  of  the  sexes.  But  as  in  some  coun- 
tries an  excess  of  males  caused  by  female  infanticide  and 
harsh  treatment  of  women  resulted  in  polyandry,  so  in 
other  countries  an  excess  of  females  caused  by  the  greater 
mortality  of  males  in  war,  the  greater  hardships  incurred 
by  primitive  man  in  hunting,  the  weaker  vitality  of  the 
male  in  childhood,  and  a  larger  birth-rate  of  girls,  pro- 
duced polygyny.  On  account  of  expense  harems  were 
necessarily  possessed  only  by  the  rich  and  powerful  who 
were  able  to  support  them.  On  the  other  hand  many  of 
the  lower  classes  were  denied  wives  because  of  the  intro 
duction  of  slavery  and  the  inability  of  the  poor  to  support 
them;  so,  on  the  average,  when  one  man  had  more  than 

2  The  attention  of  the  student  is  called  to  the  distinction  between 
polygyny,  or  the  plurality  of  wives,  and  polygamy,  which  means  the 
plurality  of  mates  and  is  a  general  term  which  includes  both  polygyny 
and  polyandry. 


200  Evolution  of  the  Family 

one  wife,  some  other  man  was  compelled  to  live  without 
one. 

The  causes  of  polygyny  were:  (1)  self-indulgence  of 
males;  (2)  need  of  laborers,  causing  wives  to  be  economic 
assets;  (3)  superior  fighting  power  of  men  with  the  larg- 
est number  of  children  and  relatives,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  could  muster  greater  bands  of  warriors;  (4) 
honor  brought  to  the  men  for  prowess  and  craft  as  evi- 
denced by  the  number  of  captured  women;  and  (5) 
augmented  dignity  of  the  chiefs  and  leading  men  result- 
ing from  the  addition  of  wives  to  their  retinues,  harems 
being  kept  up  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  social  prestige. 
To  add  to  its  influence,  this  system  gained  the  sanction 
of  religion. 

Monogamy. — As  civilization  advanced,  patriarchy  gave 
way  to  monogamy,  for  with  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion slavery  decreased  and  political,  social,  and  industrial 
equality  constantly  increased.  One  natural  result  of  the 
growth  of  liberty  and  freedom  was  the  recognition  of  the 
right  of  every  man  to  become  married  and  to  have  a  home 
of  his  own.  Because  of  the  almost  equal  number  of  males 
and  females  monogamy  became  the  only  type  of  family 
life  which  could  endure.  Since  freedom  applied  to  woman 
as  well  as  man,  woman  demanded  the  right  to  have  a 
voice  in  the  making  of  her  home,  and  her  condition 
gradually  became  better.  This  has  helped  to  make  monog- 
amy the  only  form  of  the  family  that  modern  civiliza- 
tion sanctions,  although  other  forms  still  prevail  in  some 
parts  of  the  world. 

Indeed,  investigation  no&g&x&y  shows  that  the  other 
forms  of  the  family  led  'to  monogamy,  but  also  points 
more  and  more  to  the  fact  that  monogamy  has  always 
been  the  rule,  that  the  marriage  of  single  pairs  with 
exclusive  cohabitation  has  been  the  general  custom,  and 
that  all  other  forms  have  been  deviations  from  the  ruteTj 
After  all,  the  greatest  change  as  civilization  has  advanced 
has  been  in  the  strictness  of  enforcement.  While  monog- 
amy seems  to  have  been  the  original  custom,  there  was 
no  power  of  control;  on  the  contrary,  those  in  power 


Evolution  of  the  Family  201 

who  had  the  ability  to  enforce  it  were  the  very  ones  who 
violated  the,  rule  and  hence  did  not  wish  to  make  it 
compulsory^) 

Morgan's  Classification. — Morgan  in  his  "  Ancient 
Society"  has  developed  an  extremely  interesting  and  in- 
genious theory  of  the  evolution  of  the  family.  Assuming 
a  previous  condition  of  promiscuity,  he  has  worked  out 
five  different  forms  of  the  family  as  follows : 

1.  Consanguine  Family,  or  the  inter-marriage  of  brothers 
and  sisters  belonging  to  a  single  group ;  now  extinct  but 
thought  to  have  been  once  universal.    He  based  his  theory 
upon    the    Malayan    system    found    among    the    Maoris, 
Hawaiians,  and  other  Polynesians,  which  is  the  basis  of 
the    Chinese    relationships.      Only   five   relationships   are 
recognized — parent,  child,  grandparent,  grandchild,  brother 
and  sister.     Uncles,  aunts,  and  cousins  are  impossible  to 
determine. 

2.  Punaluan,  or  the  marriage  of  each  of  several  sisters 
in  a  group  with  the  others'  husbands,  or  of  each  of  several 
brothers  in  a  group  with  the  others'  wives,  the  marriage 
between  brothers  and  sisters  being  forbidden.    This  system 
has  existed  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  within  historic 
times  and  in  Polynesia  within  the  present  century,  espe- 
cially among  the  Hawaiians.     Each  man  came  to  have  a 
principal  wife  and  each  woman  a  principal  husband. 

3.  Syndiasmian,  or  the  marriage  (often  temporary  and 
unexclusive  as  to  cohabitation)  of  a  single  pair.    This  form 
has  been  found  among  many  American  tribes,  especially 
the  Senecas,  and  among  some  of  the  peoples  of  India. 

4.  Patriarchal,   a   mode   allowing   to   one   man   several 
wives;   generally  accompanied  with  the  seclusion  of  the 
wives.    It  is  a  very  common  form  in  the  Orient  even  to-day. 

5.  Monogamy,  the  marriage  of  single  pairs  with  exclusive 
cohabitation. 

The  latter  two  forms  have  already  been  discussed. 
While  suggestive  this  classification  has  not  generally  been 
accepted  among  sociologists. 

Forms  of  Marriage. — No  history  of  the  family  would 
be  complete  without  treating  the  evolution  of  marriage, 


202  Evolution  of  the  Family 

tracing  the  forms  through  which  it  has  passed,  and 
stating  the  causes  for  them.  Because  this  development 
has  not  always  coincided  with  the  history  of  the  forms 
of  the  family,  it  has  been  omitted  till  now.  The  forms 
generally  recognized  have  been  the  following: 

1.  Natural,  or  Sexual  Selection. — This  was  when  man 
and  woman  naturally  selected  each  other  and  lived  to- 
gether through  admiration  of  each  other's  charms.     Be- 
cause there  was  no  power  to  compel  them  to  live  together, 
the  two  remained  united  only  so  long  as  the  company  of 
each  was  pleasing  and  desirable  to  the  other.  This  condi- 
tion existed  throughout  the  period  of  the  horde,  if  there 
was  such  a  period,  and  throughout  matriarchy.  But  when 
the  male  began  to  assume  the  right  to  appropriate  his 
bride  and  to  take  her  to  his  dwelling,  this  form  of  mar- 
riage broke  down,  and  marriage  by  capture  took  its  place ; 
then  mother  right  (matriarchy)  gave  way  to  father  right 
(patriarchy) . 

2.  Marriage  by  Capture. — MeLennan  thought  that  mar- 
riage by  capture  arose  from  the  rule  of  exogamy,  accord- 
ing to  which  a  man  was  compelled  to  go  outside  of  his 
group  to  obtain  a  wife,  for  as  his  tribe  was  generally  at 
war  or  on  bad  terms  with  the  neighboring  tribes,  he  was 
compelled  to  capture  his  bride  when  and  how  he  could. 
Others  hold  that  marriage  by  capture  grew  out  of  the 
capture  of  women  in  war.     Still  others  think  that  the 
men  grew  tired  of  the  women  of  their  own  camp,  seeing 
them  all  the  time,  and  for  this  reason  were  attracted  by 
the  women  of  other  tribes.    The  writer  believes  that  all 
these  theories  are  true  to  some  extent,  and  also  that  the 
superior  strength  of  the  male  has  had  much  to  do  with 
the  prevalence  of  the  custom.    But,  whatever  its  origin, 
it  has  played  a  great  part  in  the  history  of  marriage 
and  is  even  to-day  practiced  by  some  savage  tribes.     Its 
former  prevalence  is  shown,  or  at  least  strongly  indicated, 
by  the  ceremony  of  pretended  capture  in  marriage  which 
is  prominent  in  the  marriage  ceremonies  of  many  coun- 
tries.   In  these  countries  the  bridegroom,  generally  aided 
by  his  friends,  sweeps  down  upon  the  dwelling  of  the 


Evolution  of  the  Family  203 

bride,  as  a  rule  according  to  some  set  custom,  and  carries 
her  off  despite  the  pretended  resistance  of  her  friends. 
In  these  contests  she  also  pretends  to  put  up  a  struggle, 
no  matter  how  willing  she  is  to  be  carried  off.  Some 
people  believe  that  certain  marriage  practices,  such  as  the 
wedding  tour,  are  merely  survivals  of  this  custom.  Al- 
though there  is  no  direct  evidence  that  it  has  existed 
among  all  races,  marriage  by  capture  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  widespread. 

3.  Marriage  by  Purchase.  —  Marriage  by  capture  gave 
way  to  marriage  by  purchase,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
man  found  it  easier  to  buy  a  wife  than  to  fight  for  one. 
Added  to  this  was  the  desire  of  the  father  to  receive 
some  compensation  for  the  bringing  up  of  his  daughters, 
who  left  the  household  almost  as  soon  as  they  became 
economic  assets.  At  first  marriage  by  purchase  would 
have  been  impossible,  for  there  was  no  private  property, 
but  as  progress  was  achieved  and  private  property  came 
into  existence,  this  obstacle  was  removed.  Cattle  were 
the  most  common  medium  of  exchange  because  of  their 
being  in  general  demand. 

This  change  from  the  capturing  of  a  wife  to  the  buy- 
ing of  one  lowered  the  position  of  woman,  for  man 
thought  more  of  his  wife  when  he  fought  for  her  than 
when  he  purchased  her  for  merely  so  many  cattle.  This 
produced  the  desire  on  his  part  to  realize  on  the  invest- 
ment; as  a  result  woman  became  a  slave  in  her  husband's 
household.  Even  if  she  was  not  lowered  to  the  position 
of  a  slave,  she  became  a  mere  chattel.  Sometimes  she 
was  better  treated  if  she  cost  a  large  sum,  just  as  a 
valuable  animal  would  be  well  cared  for,  but  this  treat- 
ment did  not  carry  with  it  any  higher  position.  In  many 
countries  man  had  the  right  to  sell  his  wife  again,  and 
in  some  he  had  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  her. 
This  was  true  in  early  Rome  where  the  lot  of  woman  was 


1  istom  of  purchase  was  in  vogue  in  nearly  all 

anc  ations  and  was  especially  practiced  among  the 

Gr(  lindus,   Finns,   Scandinavians,    and   Slavs.     In 


204  Evolution  of  the  Family 

modern  times  it  has  been  common  among  numerous  peoples 
including  tribes  of  the  American  Indians,  nearly  all  the 
tribes  of  Africa,  Tartary,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans.  Remnants  are  found  among 
many  nations  which  do  not  practice  it  now,  in  such  cus- 
toms as  the  giving  of  presents  by  the  bridegroom  to  the 
parents  of  the  bride,  found  among  the  Japanese.  Often 
when  a  man  did  not  have  sufficient  wealth  to  buy  a  wife 
he  would,  in  lieu  of  payment,  work  an  agreed  time  for 
her  parents;  the  classic  example  is  that  of  Jacob  who 
worked  seven  years  each  for  Leah  and  Eachel. 

In  some  localities  where  wealth  accumulated,  as  in 
Rome,  instead  of  the  father  being  paid  for  his  daughter 
he  gave  a  dowry  with  her.  But  as  the  dowry  usually 
belonged  to  the  daughter  it  gave  her  greater  freedom  and 
made  her  somewhat  independent  of  her  husband.  This 
custom  frequently  prevailed  in  countries  where  a  pre- 
ponderance of  females  made  it  difficult  to  marry  them 
off.  Sometimes  this  custom  was  so  strong  that  unless 
this  dowry  was  given  the  marriage  was  not  considered 
legal,  the  children  would  not  be  regarded  legitimate,  and 
the  woman  would  be  treated  little  better  than  a  prostitute. 
This  became  the  condition  in  Greece  and  Germany  to  a 
great  extent  and  to  a  certain  degree  in  England. 

4.  Marriage  ~by  Consent. — Marriage  by  purchase  was 
succeeded  by  marriage  by  consent.  At  first  consent  of 
only  the  parents  was  necessary;  sometimes  the  consent 
of  the  bridegroom  himself  was  not  obtained.  Such  is 
the  condition  in  China  even  to-day;  the  match  is  made 
by  the  parents  through  the  services  of  professional  match- 
makers; and  the  parties  to  be  married  submit  without 
any  protest.  But  in  most  countries  the  wishes  of  the 
man  are  considered,  and  it  is  he  who  generally  gets  the 
consent  of  the  bride's  parents.  Sometimes  the  match  is 
arranged  by  the  parents,  though  often  at  the  request 
of  the  man.  At  first  the  wishes  of  the  woman  were  not 
deemed  worthy  of  consideration,  though  she  probably 
used  her  charms  to  attract  the  attention  and  win  the  love 
of  the  man  she  preferred.  The  consent  of  the  parents  is 


Evolution  oj  the  Family  205 

regarded  as  necessary  in  many  of  the  highly  civilized 
countries  to-day,  especially  among '  the  upper  classes. 
Christianity,  however,  has  insisted  that  only  the  consent 
of  the  contracting  parties  is  necessary,  and  this  has  come 
to  be  all  that  is  legally  necessary  in  the  leading  nations 
to-day. 

Three  Distinct  Stages  of  the  Family. — "We  find  that 
the  family  has  passed  through  three  distinct  stages 
in  its  process  of  development:  1.  Incomplete  stage,  as 
seen  in  the  natural  family  while  passing  through  the 
periods  of  the  horde  and  of  matriarchy ; 

2.  Completion    of    the    natural   family   in   patriarchy, 
where  the  husband  becomes  the  head  of  the  family  but 
at  the  cost  of  subjection  of  the  wife,  who  becomes  a  slave 
in  her  husband's  household; 

3.  The  period  where  husband  and  wife  are  on  equal 
legal  and  moral  planes,  and  where  the  marriage  bonds 
are  as  strict  on  the  husband  as  on  the  wife.     We  have 
not  fully  reached  this  stage  but  are  fast  moving  towards 
it.     This  condition  has  been  brought  about  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  influence  of  Christianity,  although  in  some 
countries  forces  have  long  been  at  work  in  this  direction. 

Influence  of  Christianity. — Although  disputed  by 
some,  Christianity  has  done  more  to  elevate  the  position 
of  woman  and  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  family  than 
any  other  single  factor.  First,  it  did  away  with  polygamy. 
Before  Christianity  appeared,  the  position  of  woman  was 
degraded,  even  in  highly  civilized  Greece  and  Rome.  Al- 
though Donaldson,  in  his  "Woman,  Her  Position  in 
Ancient  Greece  and  Rome,"  gives  little  credit  to  it, 
Christianity  raised  woman  from  the  position  of  a  slave 
to  that  of  a  partner.  Christianity  has  always  stood  for  a 
single  standard  of  morality  and  has  taught  that  the  moral 
responsibility  of  man  is  the  same  as  that  of  woman,  and 
although  the  Church  has  not  fully  converted  the  world 
to  this  opinion,  the  results  of  its  teaching  are  marked. 

Stability  of  Marriage. — The  durability  of  the  mar- 
riage tie  is  another  standard  by  which  we  can  study  the 
family.  As  a  rule  divorce  could  be  had  among  savages 


206  Evolution  of  the  Family 

on  slight  pretexts,  especially  by  the  man.  In  some  coun- 
tries it  was  almost  impossible  for  the  woman,  for  she  had 
no  legal  rights.  This  was  generally  true  in  countries 
where  marriage  by  purchase  was  prevalent.  But  the* 
husband  could  send  his  wife  away  whenever  he  cared  to 
-v-perhaps  simply  because  he  was  tired  of  her — on  the 
most  frivolous  grounds,  or  even  without  giving  any 
reasons  at  all.  Sometimes,  however,  this  was  not  allowed 
when  there  were  children.  On  the  other  hand,  a  few 
savage  tribes,  such  as  the  Papuas  of  New  Guinea,  the 
Veddahs  of  Ceylon,  and  the  Massers  of  Batu,  go  to.  the 
opposite  extreme  and  maintain  that  the  marriage  rela- 
tion is  absolutely  indissoluble. 

Generally  there  was  no  formal  divorce  among  savages ; 
either  the  wife  left  the  husband  or  he  made  her  leave. 
Among  more  civilized  peoples  we  find  that  divorce  has 
been  allowed  only  for  certain  fixed  reasons,  of  which 
adultery,  unfaithfulness,  barrenness,  and  cruelty  have 
been  the  most  common.  Some  form  of  ceremony  would 
usually  be  insisted  upon,  generally  the  vote  of  the  tribe 
or  permission  of  the  chief  or  ruler  being  required;  but 
the  husband  always  obtained  the  divorce  more  easily. 
In  most  instances  both  parties  were  allowed  to  re-marry, 
although  this  was  made  harder  for  the  woman  than  for 
the  man.  Among  the  Hindus  and  Chinese  even  now  it 
is  almost  impossible  for  a  woman  to  obtain  a  divorce. 
It  has  been  the  general  rule  for  the  woman  who  was 
divorced  or  who  put  away  her  husband  to  return  to  her 
own  family,  whose  duty  it  was  to  receive  her.  In  China 
at  the  present  time  she  cannot  be  divorced  unless  her 
family  is  willing  to  receive  her — a  condition  which  is  rare 
because  of  the  poverty  of  the  people  and  the  dislike  for 
women,  unless  it  is  certain  that  a  new  husband  can 
quickly  be  found  for  her. 

Among  Mohammedans  divorce  is  allowed.  Christianity 
has  thrown  its  influence  against  it.  Roman  Catholics 
forbid  it,  calling  it  "progressive  polygamy."  Protestants 
allow  it  for  certain  causes.  To-day  divorce  is  increasing 
in  Christian  countries,  especially  the  United  States, 


Evolution  of  the  Family  207 

largely  owing  to  a  change  of  attitude  on  the  part  of 
Protestants  in  regard  to  it. 
Position    of    Woman    Under    Different   Religions. — 1. 

Brahmanism. — In  India,  under  Brahmanism  a  woman 
is  married  when  a  mere  girl,  sometimes  being  spoken 
for  when  she  is  in  her  cradle.  She  is  usually  marked 
to  a  man  much  older  than  herself,  often  to  one  old  enough 
to  be  her  father.  She  is  in  theory  and  often  in  practice 
a  servant  or  rather  a  slave  of  her  husband,  not  being 
allowed  to  eat  at  the  same  table  or  to  cook  her  food 
over  the  same  fire.  She  is  kept  upon  a  low  intellectual 
plane,  seldom  being  allowed  to  learn  to  read  or  write. 
Her  husband  is  her  god;  her  hope  in  the  future  lies  in 
the  confident  expectation  of  being  able  to  serve  her 
husband.  Formerly  when  he  died  she  was  burned  on  his 
funeral  pyre.  When  this  custom  (called  suttee)  was 
stopped  by  the  English  government,  widows  became 
despised  and  isolated  persons  and  were  forbidden  to  re- 
marry. A  few  years  ago  there  were  23,000,000  such 
widows  in  India,  many  of  whom  were  mere  children, 
eight,  ten,  and  twelve  years  of  age,  too  young  even  to 
know  what  marriage  meant ;  their  unhappy  lot  the  British 
government  has  tried  with  some  success  to  alleviate.  In 
the  temples  themselves  in  India  women  are  kept  for 
immoral  purposes.  Female  infanticide  formerly  was  very 
common  and,  although  it  is  now  forbidden  by  the  govern- 
ment, it  is  yet  practiced  secretly  to  some  extent.  In  fact 
there  are  to-day  5,000,000  fewer  women  in  India  than 
men,  although  the  harder  lot  of  women  and  the  poverty 
of  the  country  may  account  in  part  for  this  difference. 

2.  Buddhism. — Under  Buddhism  woman  enjoys  a  much 
higher  position  than  under  Brahmanism,  for  although  she 
is  looked  upon  as  an  inferior  she  is  treated  well,  especially 
in  Siam.  There  a  boy  generally  marries  at  fourteen,  a 
girl  at  twelve;  if  a  girl  is  not  married  at  thirteen  she  is 
sold  into  serfdom.  While  polygamy  and  divorce  prevail, 
woman  is  to  a  great  extent  independent.  In  Japan  her 
position  is  not,  on  the  whole,  so  good  as  in  Siam;  she  is 
looked  upon  as  an  inferior,  whose  duty  it  is  to  serve  her 


208  Evolution  of  tlie  Family 

husband.  This  inferior  position  is  shown  often  in  the 
customs  and  ideals.  Immorality  is  very  common  and  con- 
cubinage does  much  to  break  up  home  life.  The  husband 
can  easily  divorce  the  wife,  who  can  also  obtain  a  divorce 
but  her  children  go  to  the  husband.  Christianity  has 
done  much  to  elevate  the  position  of  woman  in  Japan; 
immorality  has  been  checked  to  some  extent,  and  infan- 
ticide abolished. 

3.  Confucianism. — In    China    under    Confucianism,    the 
condition  of  woman  is  wretched.    A  girl  is  merely  a  slave 
and  is  early  given  in  marriage  or  sold  if  any  one  will 
buy  her.     She  never  sees  her  husband  till  the  time  for 
the  marriage  ceremony;  she  goes  to  live  in  the  family  of 
her  husband  where  she  becomes  a  slave;  she  never  is 
given  a  chance  to  start  a  new  home.    The  man  can  divorce 
his  wife,  provided  her  family  will  take  her  back,  but  the 
law  recognizes  no  such  right  for  the  woman.     In  youth 
the  girl  is  a  slave  to  her  parents;  after  marriage,  to  her 
mother-in-law ;  in  old  age,  to  her  sons.    Because  of  poverty 
female   infanticide   is   great;   female   suicide   is   common, 
although  the  high  price  of  the  poisons  made  from  opium 
and  the  scarcity  of  green  opium  has  now  made  the  luxury 
of  a  suicide  almost  prohibitive  to  the  poor.    The  Chinese 
woman  is  a  drudge,  constantly  bearing  children,  cease- 
lessly working,  and  having  no  outlook  in  life. 

4.  Mohammedanism. — Although    not    generally    abused, 
woman  holds  a  degraded  position  in    all    Mohammedan 
countries.     While  a  husband  must  provide  for  his  wife, 
he  can  divorce  her  for  any  reason;  but  she  has  no  such 
means  of  redress.     Woman  is  never  looked  upon  by  her 
husband  as  a  companion,  but  as  a  toy  or  plaything.    Be- 
cause  of  the  "prevalence   of   the   old   patriarchal   system 
woman  is  the  slave  of  her  mother-in-law.     The  Koran 
permits  four  wives,  but  through  divorce  a  man  can  have 
as  many  wives  as  he  wants;  he  is  permitted  as  many 
concubines  as  he  is  able  to  support.     The  Mohammedan 
conception  of  Heaven  includes  woman  placed  there  only 
to  wait  upon  and  serve  man.    It  is  this  sensual  and  de- 
graded position  of  woman  which  has  counteracted  the 


Evolution  of  the  Family  209 

good  effects  of  the  Koran  and  has  put  all  the  Moham- 
medan countries  so  low  in  the  scale  of  civilization. 

5.  Judaism  and  Christianity. — While  the  ancient  Jews 
had  the  patriarchal  form  of  the  family,  the  Jews  were 
the  first  people  to  allow  marriage  to  be  based  merely 
upon  personal  choice.  Rights  of  woman  developed  among 
them  at  a  much  faster  rate  than  among  otfeer  races. 
Christianity,  adding  impetus  to  this  development,  has 
stood  for  the  equal  rights  of  woman.  Among  Christian 
races  we  find  respect,  love,  and  equality  between  husband 
and  wife ;  the  abolition  of  polygyny  and  concubinage,  the 
diminishing  of  immorality  and  impurity;  the  strengthen- 
ing of  marriage  ties,  and  above  all  the  evolution  of 
woman's  individuality.  These  are  among  the  factors  that 
have  made  the  Christian  nations  the  leading  nations  of 
the  world  to-day. 

Conclusion. — In  most  of  the  Oriental  countries  to-day 
the  patriarchal  form  of  the  family  is  the  prevailing 
one,  being  founded  upon  an  institution  which  was  prev- 
alent centuries  ago.  In  Greece  women  were  secluded, 
the  wife  was  uneducated  and,  although  well  treated  phys- 
ically, was  not  looked  upon  as  a  companion  but  merely 
as  the  keeper  of  the  home  and  the  rearer  of  the  children. 
Much  of  this,  however,  she  turned  over  to  slaves.  Thus 
the  position  of  woman  was  degrading  enough  although 
not  so  bad  as  it  was  previously  in  the  nations  of  Asia. 
In  early  Rome  woman  occupied  an  honorable  position 
although  her  lot  was  hard.  In  the  later  Empire  woman 
was  freed  largely  from  the  restraint  of  patriarchal  cus- 
toms, but  family  ties  became  very  lax  and  the  family 
very  unstable.  Immorality  increased,  reaching  terrible 
proportions  in  the  later  years  of  the  Empire.  This  was 
caused  largely  by  the  destruction  of  the  old  religion,  the 
bringing  in  of  vast  wealth  to  Rome  from  all  parts  of 
the  Empire,  and  the  change  in  political  conditions.  In- 
stead of  advancing,  Rome  degenerated  and  crumbled. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  we  find  the  development  of 
feudalism,  when  men  spent  their  time  fighting,  pillag- 
ing and  drinking,  and  left  most  of  the  work  for  the  women 


210  Evolution  of  the  Family 

to  do.  This  was  followed  by  the  period  of  chivalry  which 
has  been  much  sung  and  written  about.  But  chivalry 
was  an  artificial  condition  that  developed  under  knight- 
hood. The  knight  who  would  fight  to  the  death  to  defend 
the  honor  of  a  woman  of  gentle  birth,  thought  nothing  of 
ravishing  the  daughter  of  the  poor.  In  fact,  the  daughters 
of  the  peasants  or  serfs  were  looked  upon  by  the  nobles 
and  landlords  as  legitimate  objects  of  prey. 

In  Europe  to-day  woman  occupies  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion differing  in  degrees  in  the  various  countries.  Even 
in  England  she  does  not  hold  an  equal  position  before 
the  law.  Divorce  is  made  much  harder  for  her  than  for 
the  man,  and  the  double  standard  falls  much  heavier  upon 
her.  In  one  or  two  countries  she  is  given  the  voting 
privilege,  but  in  general  her  position  is  much  inferior 
to  that  of  woman  in  the  United  States. 

"Woman  is  rapidly  coming  into  a  condition  of  equality 
with  man,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  until  this 
principle  will  be  completely  recognized.  Progress  is  most 
evident  in  education,  business,  social  life  and  politics. 

1.  Education. — It  has  been  only  a  few  years  since  people 
were  discussing  the  question  whether  it  was  worth  while 
to  educate  girls  other  than  teaching  them  to  read  and 
write.    Later  the  question  was  whether  it  was  worth  while 
to  send  them  to  a  secondary  school;  in  some  sections  of 
our  country  the  value  of  such  an  education  is  hardly 
recognized  even  to-day.    Not  long  ago  people  were  debat- 
ing in  regard  to  a  college  education  for  women,  and  now 
the  same  question  is  being  thrashed  out  in  regard  to  pro- 
fessional studies,  such  as  medicine,  law,  and  engineering. 
It  was  only  a  comparatively  few  years  ago  that  women 
were  first  admitted  to  our  colleges;  they  are  even  to-day 
forbidden  admission  to  a  few  of  our  largest  universities. 
But  in  general  we  admit  the  principle  of  equal  education 
for  women. 

2.  Business. — During    the    past    twenty-five    or    thirty 
years  woman  has  invaded  the  field  of  business,  and  in 
routine  places  which  require  accuracy  and  attention  to 
details,  such  as  stenographer,  bookkeeper,  secretary,  and 


Evolution  of  the  Family  211 

cashier,  she  not  only  has  established  herself  but  frequently 
has  proved  her  superiority  to  man.  During  the  World 
War  the  scarcity  of  male  labor  resulted  in  a  great  influx 
of  female — not  only  in  unskilled  industry  but  in  special- 
ized work  as  well.  Woman  is  now  attempting  the  more 
advanced  positions,  such  as  department  head,  stock  buyer, 
and  executive,  but  is  meeting  with  greater  difficulty  in 
such  positions  because  of  the  high  degree  of  fitness  re- 
quired, and  also  because  man  enters  business  as  a  life 
work  while  woman  often  enters  it  in  an  amateur  way, 
intending  to  follow  it  only  a  few  years,  and  looking 
towards  matrimony  as  a  means  of  escape  from  it.  Then, 
too,  man  has  always  shown  greater  executive  ability 
and  is  better  adapted  to  managing  and  supervising. 
Recently  women  have  been  going  into  business  for  them- 
selves, and  while  generally  successful  in  a  small  way  they 
lack  the  daring  and  broad  grasp  which  are  essential  to 
noteworthy  success. 

3.  Social  Life. — In  social  life  the  position  of  woman  is 
becoming  less  artificial  and  more  practical.     She  is  no 
longer  placed  upon  a  pedestal  and  worshiped  simply  be- 
cause she  is  a  woman ;  she  is  now  respected  for  what  she 
is.     She  is  not  excused  simply  on  the  ground  that  she 
belongs  to  the  female  sex,  but  is  held  responsible  as  a 
person  able  to  decide  and  reason  things  out.     In  short, 
she   is  being   worshiped  less    and   respected  more.      The 
old  form  of  chivalry  is  rapidly  dying  out;  a  new  and 
higher  form  is  taking  its  place.    Woman  is  being  deferred 
to  and  waited  upon  less  and  less,  but  she  is  given  a 
greater  chance  to  develop  her  talents  to  the  best  of  her 
ability. 

4.  Politics. — Woman   suffrage   has    been   ridiculed   and 
opposed  in  vain.    It  is  now  recognized  by  careful  students 
of  the  question  as  not  merely  inevitable  but  as  the  only 
rational  outcome.     Woman  has  to  obey  laws.     Why  not 
give  her  a  voice  in  making  them?    If  she  owns  property 
she  has  to  pay  taxes  on  it.     Why  not  give  her  a  voice 
in  saying  what  those  taxes  shall  be?     She  is  going  into 
industry  and  fighting  her  own  way  in  the  world,  subject 


Evolution  of  the  Family 

to  the  dangers  and  temptations  of  the  world,  to  disease, 
to  poor  sanitation,  to  impure  milk  supply,  to  bad  housing 
conditions,  etc.  She  has  to  live  amid  these  conditions, 
why  not  give  her  a  chance  to  protect  herself?  Woman 
suffrage  will  never  bring  the  millennium ;  but  why  should 
this  be  expected?  It  is  not  a  question  of  bringing  in 
reforms,  but  of  giving  equal  rights  and  privileges  to  all 
who  are  entitled  to  them.  The  woman  suffrage  fight  has 
been  won  in  the  United  States  and  some  countries  of 
Europe,  and  the  principle  actuating  it  is  being  slowly 
accepted  throughout  the  world. 

It  is  now  being  recognized  that  in  the  last  analysis 
marriage  rests  upon  a  mutual  attraction  of  the  sexes.  In 
order  to  make  it  a  success  the  wife  should  be  capable  of 
meeting  the  husband  on  an  equal  plane  and  of  sharing 
his  interests.  "When  this  is  accomplished  happiness  will 
be  more  certain.  Then  and  not  till  then  will  the  evolution 
of  the  family  be  completed. 

READING  REFERENCES 

WESTERMARCK,  EDWARD,  History  of  Human  Marriage. 

HOWARD,  GEORGE  E.,  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions,  Vol.  I. 

GOODSELL,  WILLYSTINE,  The  Family  as  a  Social  and  Educational 

Institution. 
DONALDSON,  J.,   Woman,  Her  Position  in  Ancient  Greece  and 

Rome. 

BOSANQUET,  HELEN,  The  Family. 
THWING,  CHARLES  F.  AND  CARRIE  F.,  The  Family. 
STARCKE,  C.  N.,  The  Primitive  Family. 
MORGAN,  LEWIS  H.,  Ancient  Society,  Part  III. 
McLENNAN,  J.  F.,  Primitive  Marriage. 
DENSMORE,  EMMET,  Sex  Equality. 
TENNET,  A.  A.,  Contrasts  in  Social  Progress. 
SALEEBY,  C.  W.,  Parenthood  and  Race  Culture. 
PARSONS,  ELSIE  CLEWS,  The  Family. 
DEALEY,  J.  Q.,  The  Family  in  Its  Sociological  Aspects. 
WARD,  LESTER  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chap.  XIV. 
CALHOUN,  A.  W.,  History  of  the  American  Family,  three  volumes. 
SMITH,  W.  R.,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Ancient  Arabia. 
LOTT,  Harem  Life  in  Egypt  and  Constantinople,  two  volumes. 
THOMAS,  W.  I.,  Sex  and  Society. 

THOMAS,  W.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Part  IV. 
LOWIE,  ROBERT  H.,  Primitive  Society,  Chaps.  I- VIII. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PROBLEMS  OF  THE  MODERN  FAMILY 

While  the  slavery  and  subjection  of  the  wife  in  the 
home  has  been  abolished,  the  power  of  life  and  death  of 
the  man  over  his  wife  and  children  made  a  thing  of  the 
past,  and  such  conditions  as  polygyny  and  polyandry  done 
away  with  in  most  civilized  countries,  there  are  still  prob- 
lems connected  with  family  life.  These  are  different  from 
the  ones  of  a  thousand  years  ago,  different  even  from 
those  of  fifty  years  ago;  nevertheless  they  exist.  They 
are  constantly  varying  as  changes  occur  in  our  social 
fabric.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  some  of  the 
more  important  present-day  problems  that  concern  the 
family. 

Race  Suicide. — A  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given 
in  recent  years  to  the  fact  that  the  size  of  the  families 
of  our  native  American  stock  has  been  constantly  decreas- 
ing. Statistics  go  to  prove  such  statements,  as  we  found 
in  our  study  of  birth-rates.  What  especially  alarms  us  is 
the  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  families  of  the  original 
American  stock,  which  settled  this  country  and  were  chiefly 
responsible  for  its  success  as  a  nation,  such  as  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  of  Massachusetts  and  the 
Cavaliers  of  Virginia.  Figures  throughout  the  country 
show  a  similar  tendency;  there  is  everywhere  a  decrease 
in  the  size  of  the  modern  family,  especially  among  the 
educated  and  cultured  classes.  In  our  chapter  on  "In- 
crease of  Population"  we  have  considered  the  social  and 
economic  causes  of  this  decline  in  birth-rate.  Some  people 
look  upon  this  decrease  with  alarm,  but  others  with  the 
hope  that  through  this  means  our  standard  of  living  will 
keep  on  growing  higher,  that  we  shall  rear  with  greater 
care  what  children  we  have.  As  the  size  of  the  family 
decreases  we  find  the  death  rate  decreasing,  especially 

213 


214  Problems  of  ilie  Modern  Family 

among  children.  Fewer  children  die  in  infancy,  because 
they  receive  better  care,  more  wholesome  food,  better 
clothing,  and  more  careful  medical  attention. 

The  principal  objection  to  this  seeming  race  suicide 
is  that  the  people  who  have  least  need  to  restrict  the 
size  of  their  families  are  the  ones  who  do  it,  while  the 
ones  who  can  least  afford  large  families  are  the  ones 
who  still  have  them,  being  too  ignorant  or  too  shiftless 
to  limit  the  number  of  the  children.  We  see  laborers 
who  earn  very  poor  wages  having  families  of  six  and 
eight  children.  We  see  these  children  insufficiently  fed, 
thinly  clad,  poorly  housed,  and  at  an  early  age  forced 
into  industry  and  never  given  a  chance  to  develop  as  they 
should.  This  condition  increases  crime,  vice,  and  poverty. 
The  ones  who  ought  to  limit  the  size  of  their  families 
are  the  very  ones  who  try  to  increase  them.  Some  op- 
pose the  idea  of  limiting  families  on  religious  grounds, 
believing  that  we  should  continue  to  replenish  the  earth 
and  should  not  interfere  with  the  plans  of  our  Creator. 
Such  views  are  not  held  so  much  as  formerly,  for  the 
world  already  shows  indications  of  soon  being  over- 
populated;  it  is  also  conceived  as  possible  that  our 
Creator  has  given  us  the  knowledge  to  control  the  num- 
ber of  children.  On  the  whole,  this  cry  of  race  suicide 
does  not  attract  nearly  so  much  attention  to-day  as  it 
did  a  few  years  ago.  Some  states  even  now  try  to  pre- 
vent doctors  from  giving  their  patients  knowledge  to 
prevent  conception,  but  such  laws  are  reactionary  and 
retrogressive.  I 

Woman's  Rights.— ^Te  are  living  in  an  age  of  specializa- 
tion. Each  person  must  be  able  to  do  some  one  thing. 
This  specialization  has  spread  to  the  home  and  has  con- 
tributed to  the  breaking  down  of  home  life.  }The  father 
is  away  from  home  a  great  deal  of  the  time  and  often  the 
mother  is  also  forced  to  go  into  industry;  the  children 
are  thus  left  to  their  own  devices.  In  the  homes  of  the 
rich  it  is  equally  bad,  for  here  the  children  are  frequently 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  servants,  the  father  being  en- 
grossed with  business  cares  and  the  mother  with  her  social 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family  215 

functions.  This  is  carried  so  far  that  some  people  go 
to  the  extent  of  predicting  the  ultimate  destruction  of 
the  family,  saying  that  it  has  served  its  part  in  civiliza- 
tion and  is  soon  to  be  relegated  to  the  past.  Such  a  view 
is,  of  course,  too  extreme.  Yet  we  cannot  go  back  to 
the  old  form  of  the  family, .  because  we  are  not  living 
under  the  same  conditions  in  which  our  fathers  and  grand- 
fathers lived. 

Formerly  the  girls  in  the  home  were  held  in  restraint. 
In  many  sections  of  our  country  a  woman  would  have 
lost  her  standing  in  society  if  she  but  ventured  to  walk 
through  the  country  alone,  and  such  is  the  condition 
to  a  great  extent  in  our  Southern  states  to-day.  Possibly 
there  was  once  the  need  of  such  provision  because  of  the 
dangers  of  a  new  country,  and  possibly  such  a  need 
exists  in  the  South  to-day,  but  in  general  our  country 
has  reached  so  high  a  state  of  civilization  that  such 
restraint  is  wholly  unnecessary.  The  place  of  woman 
in  the  past  was  in  the  home,  and  we  hear  to-day  the  same 
argument  harped  on  by  the  reactionary  element  in  our 
population;  but  such  movements  as  woman's  suffrage  and 
feminism  are  rapidly  convincing  the  world  that  woman 
has  an  equal  right  to  a  voice  in  every  phase  of  our  social 
life,  that  she  has  the  right  to  go  into  industry,  to  make 
her  own  living,  choose  a  career,  and  have  an  equal  voice 
not  only  in  the  control  of  the  children  but  also  in  all 
matters  that  affect  the  home.  While  this  argument  may 
be  perfectly  valid  and  is  now  generally  so  recognized, 
there  are  difficulties  in  carrying  out  the  principle.  We 
may  be  willing  to  admit  that  woman  has  just  as  valid 
a  right  to  swear,  drink,  and  smoke  as  man,  but  it  never- 
theless offends  us  more  when  she  does  it,  because  we  are 
not  accustomed  to  it.  When  a  woman  demands  an  equal 
right  with  men  to  dine  out  of  evenings  unescorted,  or 
even  to  walk  the  street  of  an  evening  unescorted,  her 
meaning  may  be  misunderstood  and  she  may  be  molested 
and  even  insulted. 

Such  are  merely  difficulties  incidental  to  adjustment 
to  a  new  condition.     Since  from  one-fourth  to  one-third 


216          Problems  of  tJie  Modern  Family 

of  the  women  in  industry  are  married,  the  problem  of  the 
family  is  more  intricate.  In  time  we  shall  get  our  bear- 
ings and  become  accustomed  to  woman's  going  into  in- 
dustry, choosing  a  profession,  insisting  upon  continuance 
in  that  profession  after  marriage,  demanding  a  single 
standard  of  morality,  and  insisting  upon  an  equal  share 
in  the  making  and  executing  of  our  laws.  When  we 
shall  have  reached  such  a  stage  we  shall  no  longer  con- 
sider woman's  rights  a  problem  but  shall  wonder  why 
it  took  the  world  so  long  to  be  convinced.  In  the  past 
woman  has  not  kept  pace  with  her  husband  after  marriage 
but  gradually  slipped  backward,  and  she  does  so  to  some 
extent  even  to-day.  This  has  stood  in  the  way  of  any 
movement  tending  to  bring  about  a  condition  of  equality. 
Man  goes  out  into  the  world,  brushes  against  others,  and 
in  this  manner  keeps  his  wits  sharpened  and  his  horizon 
continually  broadened.  But  woman  remains  in  the  home, 
doing  the  same  old  things  day  after  day  and  meeting 
the  same  small  number  of  people.  Her  work  does  not 
end  at  five  or  six  o'clock  but  continues  long  afterwards; 
thus  she  has  generally  been  deprived  of  time  even  to  read 
the  daily  newspapers,  to  say  nothing  of  getting  out  into 
the  world  and  meeting  other  people;  so  she  inevitably 
fell  back.  This  has  been  true  even  of  college  graduates, 
for  there  is  not  always  an  incentive  for  them  to  continue 
their  studies.  To  the  writer  this  problem  of  woman's 
rights  seems  merely  temporary,  one  of  adjustment,  rather 
than  a  permanent  condition.  It  is  a  sign  of  progress. 
Modern  improvements  are  making  housework  less  of  a1 
drudgery.  Such  inventions  as  the  vacuum  cleaner,  electric 
iron,  gas  range,  electric  cookers,  electric  lights,  and 
electric  washing  machines  make  housework  less  difficult. 
The  bakery  and  canning  factory  save  much  cooking. 
Woman  is  thus  given  more  time  for  self-culture.  She  is 
allowed  to  go  outside  into  the  world  more  and  more,  and, 
although  woman  is  naturally  more  conservative  than  man, 
we  can  only  look  for  a  more  satisfactory  status  to  follow. 
The  World  War  complicated  this  problem  because  of  the 
great  increase  of  women  in  industry;  at  the  same  time 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          217 


it  probably  hastened  its  solution  by  increasing  the  respect 
for  woman  and  by  offering  her  greater  opportunities. 

Divorce. — When  we  come  to  the  divorce  question  we 
meet  a  problem  which  is  much  more  serious  than  those 
just  considered,  although  possibly  less  alarming  than 
many  people  believe  it  to  be.  The  conditions  are  not  all 
bad,  for  often  a  divorce  is  a  good  thing  in  that  it  may 
be  a  relief  from  a  worse  condition.  If  a  couple  simply 
cannot  live  together  happily  and  if  life  to  both  of  them 
is  torment,  it  is  best  for  them  to  separate.  If  there  are 
children  the  seriousness  of  the  situation  is  increased,  for 
their  future  has  to  be  considered,  even  more  than  that 
of  the  parents.  And  if  the  couple  continue  to  live  to- 
gether the  problem  may  be  still  further  complicated  by 
the  birth  of  more  children.  The  fact  that  we  have  such 
a  thing  as  divorce  is  not  the  alarming  feature ;  it  is  rather 
in  the  great  increase  of  divorce  in  the  United  States. 
LThere  are  more  divorces  granted  in  this  qmint/rv  than  in 
'all  the-rest..of  the  nations  of.. the  civilized  world  put  to- 
Aether.  "This  became  the  case  as  early  as  1885,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  figures  for  that  year,  for  the 
number  of  divorces  granted: 

United  States 23,472 

France    6,245 

Germany    6,161 

Eussia   1,789 

Austria    1,718 

Switzerland   '. .  920 

Denmark    635 

Italy  556 


/ 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  508 

Eoumania    541 

Holland    339 

Belgium   290 

Sweden    229 

Australia    100 

Norway    68 

Canada    12 


This  makes  a  total  of  only  20,131  divorces  for  all  the 
other  nations  as  against  23,472  for  the  United  States. 
The  figures  for  twenty  years  later,  1905,  are  still  more 
impressive,  as  shown  as  follows: 

United  States   67,976 

Germany    11,147 

France    10,860 


Austria-Hungary    5,785 

Roumania    1,718 

Switzerland 1,206 

Belgium   901 

Holland   900 


Italy    (1904)    839 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  821 

Denmark    549 

Sweden 448 

Norway    408 

Australia    339 

New  Zealand    126 

Canada ,..,  33 


218          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

The  United  States  has  more  than  held  its  own,  for 
against  less  than  40,000  divorces  for  the  rest  of  the  civil- 
ized world  the  United  States  had  in  1905  nearly  68,000. 
The  highest  divorce  rate  outside  the  United  States  was 
in  Switzerland,  where  there  was  one  divorce  to  twenty- 
two  marriages.  In  France  the  ratio  was  one  to  thirty; 
in  Germany  one  to  forty-four;  and  in  England  one  to 
four  hundred.  In  the  United  States  it  was  one  to  twelve. 
In  1916  this  ratio  had  increased  to  one  to  nine.  A  few 
of  our  states,  mostly  in  the  West,  showed  a  much  higher 
rate,  it  being  in  Nevada  one  to  one  and  one-half;  in 
Oregon  one  to  two  and  one-half ;  in  Wyoming  one  to  three ; 
in  Washington  one  to  four;  in  Idaho,  Oklahoma,  Montana 
and  California  one  to  five  or  slightly  over;  in  Indiana, 
Missouri,  Arizona,  Texas  and  New  Hampshire  one  to  six 
or  slightly  over.  Some  of  our  cities  show  even  higher 
rates.  The  divorce  rate  for  the  Western  states  in  1905 
was  more  than  four  times  that  of  the  North  Atlantic 
states  and  almost  four  times  that  of  the  South  Atlantic 
states.  This  difference  is  owing  largely  to  the  greater 
independence  of  woman  in  the  Western  states. 

Rapid  Increase  in  the  United  States. — Yet  it  is  not  so 
much  the  fact  that  the  United  States  leads  the  world  in 
the  number  of  divorces  granted,  as  that  the  increase 
has  been  so  rapid  in  this  country,  which  is  the  alarming 
feature.  In  1867,  the  first  year  for  which  divorce  statistics 
are  available,  there  were  only  9937  divorces  granted  in 
the  United  States,  while  in  1906  the  number  reached 
72,062  and  in  1916,  112,036.  In  the  twenty  years  from 
1867  to  1886  inclusive  there  were  328,716  divorces  granted, 
but  in  the  next  twenty  years,  or  1887  to  1906  inclusive, 
the  number  reached  945,625.  In  the  first  period  (from 
1867  to  1886)  the  number  of  divorces  increased  157  per 
cent,  while  the  population  increased  but  60  per  cent;  in 
the  second  period  (from  1886  to  1906)  the  number  of 
divorces  increased  160  per  cent;  while  the  population  in- 
creased but  a  trifle  over  50  per  cent.  In  other  words  divorce 
has  increased  three  times  as  fast  as  our  population.  Pro- 
fessor Wilcox  estimates  that  at  our  present  rate  of  in- 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          219 

crease,  by  1950,  one-fourth  of'  all  our  marriages  will 
end  in  divorce  and,  by  1990,  one-half  of  all  marriages 
will  end  in  divorce.  Such  a  condition  would  be  danger- 
ous to  our  civilization  for  it  would  inevitably  cause 
neglect  of  children,  the  breaking  up  of  the  home,  immor- 
ality, and  an  entire  disregard  for  family  ties.  While  such 
an  increase  as  Professor  Willcox  suggests  is  logical,  it  is 
not  at  all  probable.  We  are  now  in  a  period  of  transition 
and  we  should  naturally  expect  a  high  divorce  rate.  In 
all  probability  it  will  be  only  a  matter  of  a  few  years 
till  we  reach  the  end  of  this  increase,  although  we  have 
not  reached  it  yet.  After  we  have  settled  down  to  the 
new  state  of  affairs  and  reach  the  time  when  woman  has 
as  much  to  say  about  the  choosing  of  a  mate  and  the 
management  of  the  home  as  the  man,  then  we  can  per- 
haps look  for  a  decrease,  for  we  can  naturally  expect 
that  unions  will  be  made  with  greater  care  and  greater 
marital  happiness  will  result.  If  people  were  truly  happy, 
they  would  not  even  need  any  marriage  bonds  to  hold 
them;  in  fact  they  would  continue  to  live  together  if 
there  were  none. 

Who  Are  Divorced? — 1.  As  we  naturally  should  sup- 
pose in  view  of  the  greater  strain  upon  family  life, 
divorces  are  granted  much  more  frequently  in  cities  than 
in  rural  sections.  This  is  not  true,  however,  in  some  cities 
where  there  are  large  numbers  of  immigrants,  who  have 
not  as  yet  adopted  our  customs  and  who  are  generally 
adherents  of  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church.  The  liability 
of  family  friction  is  increased  by  cramped  dwellings, 
nerve  strain,  financial  worry,  opportunities  to  spend  money, 
the  inclination  to  seek  pleasure  outside  of  the  family 
circle,  late  hours,  separation  during  the  most  of  the  day, 
renting  instead  of  owning  homes,  especially  furnished 
apartments,  and  the  buying  of  food  in  restaurants  and 
delicatessens  instead  of  home  cooking.  These  and  other 
urban  conditions  make  it  only  natural  that  divorce  should 
be  more  common  in  cities  than  in  the  country. 

2.  Statistics  show  that  divorce  is  almost  twice  as  fre- 
in  homes  that  have  no  children  as  among  families 


220          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

that  have.    Children  give  the  parents  something  in  com- 
mon, something  to  love,  somebody  else  to  work  for;  thus 
they  keep  the  minds  of  the  parents  off  themselves  and 
encourage  altruism.     In  fact,  the  possession  of  children 
develops  the  finest  qualities  of  the  human  soul;  parents 
endure  things — even  unhappiness — for  the  sake  of  their 
children,   being  unwilling  to   spoil  their   future.     Then 
igain,  although  it  is  a  fact  seldom  mentioned,  childless- 
less  may  be  a  sign  of  previous  unfaithfulness  and  im- 
norality;  the  couple  may  not  be  able  to  have  children. 
Dhis  in  itself  would  bring  about  unhappiness.    If  a  wife 
inds  out  that  she  cannot  have  children  because  her  hus- 
jand  sowed  his  wild  oats  years  before,  she  naturally  will  lose 
ler  love  for  him7~~  "Formerly  she  was  blamed  for  barren- 
ness, but  nowadays  she  is  able  to  find  out  the  real  reason. 
Married  couples  who  are  too  selfish  to  have  children  are 
the  very  ones  who  are  too  selfish  to  live  happily  together. 
So  the  whole  tendency  is  only  a  natural,  logical  result 
of  present-day  living  conditions. 

3.  Religion   plays  .an   important   part.      Because    the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  forbids  divorce,  we  naturally  find 
the  fewest  cases  among  its  adherents.     Protestants  say 
the  least  about  it  and  have  practically  no  church  laws 
forbidding  it,  so  we  find  them  at  the  head  of  the  list.    The 
Jews  follow  the  Protestants.    In  sections  where  religious 
control  is  great  we  naturally  look  for  a  lower  divorce 
rate.    Religion  is,  however,  playing  a  less  important  role 
in  this  respect  than  formerly. 

4.  Divorce  is  greater  among  native  whites  than  foreign- 
born  whites  because  of  the  larger  percentage  of  Roman 
Catholics  among  the  immigrants,  and  because  of  the  fact 
that  the  newcomers  have  not  yet  adopted  our  ideas  and 
customs.     Women  among  the  immigrants  endure  things 
the  native  American  woman  would  not  think  of  enduring. 

5.  For  the  past  forty  years  two-thirds  of  the  divorces 
have  been  granted  to  the  wife.    In  former  times.- k^  was 
the  husband  who  sought  divorce.     This  does  not  mean 
that  the  fault  is  two-thirds  of  the  time  with  the  husband. 
If  the  divorce  is  agreed  upon  between  them,  it  is  the  wife 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

who  usually  seeks  it  because  of  the  greater  chance  she 
has  of  obtaining  it.  Moreover  modern  laws  in  the  United 
States  favor  her  more  than  the  husband,  allowing  divorce 
for  cruelty,  drunkenness,  adultery,  desertion,  non-support, 
etc.;  so  it  is  harder  for  a  man  to  get  a  divorce.  It  is 
also  a  greater  disgrace  to  the  wife  if  the  husband  sues 
for  the  divorce.  Courts  are  much  more  lenient  with 
women  than  with  men.  Because  man  is  stronger  he  can 
be  cruel  if  he  desires;  it  would  be  more  difficult  for  the 
wife  to  be  cruel.  It  is  also  easier  for  a  man  to  desert 
his  family.  The  temptation  to  adultery  and  drunkenness 
is  greater;  so  it  is  only  natural  that  he  should  be  the 
guilty  party  in  the  majority  of  cases.  If  the  home  is 
unhappy,  it  affects  the  wife  more,  for  she  has  to  live  in 
it ;  the  husband  can  be  away  much  of  the  time. 

6.  There  are  three  great  divorce  centers,  the  Western 
states,  Rocky  Mountain  and  North  Central  states,  and 
New  England;  this  is  due  to  the  greater  development  of 
individualism  and  woman's  rights  in  those  sections,  and 
also  to  the  greater  economic  independence  of  woman  in 
those  localities.    In  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a 
great  increase  of  divorce  in  the  Southern  states,  and  we 
can  expect  a  greater. 

7.  As  to  occupation  we  find  that  the  rate  among  farmers 
is  below  normal.    On  the  other  hand,  actors,  commercial 
travelers,   professional   showmen,   bartenders,  musicians, 
physicians,  and  telephone  and  telegraph  operators  furnish 
far  above  the  average  number.     Where  the  occupation 
brings  with  it  greater  strain  upon  the  family  ties  we  find 
greater  divorce  rates.    Also  those  occupations  which  at- 
tract temperamental  persons,  such  as  actors  and  musi- 
cians, naturally  furnish  a  high  divorce  rate. 

Grounds  for  Divorce. — It  must  be  clearly  understood 
that  there  is  a  difference  between  grounds  for  divorce 
and  causes  of  divorce.  By  grounds  we  mean  the  legal 
bases  upon  which  divorce  may  be  obtained.  These  need 
not  be  necessarily  the  reasons ;  the  real  reasons  may  never 
be  disclosed  in  the  court  room,  and  frequently  are  not. 
In  all  there  are  thirty-six  different  grounds  for  divorce 


222          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

recognized  by  the  *laws  of  the  various  states,  ranging  in 
number  from  one  (adultery),  in  New  York,  to  fourteen, 
in  New  Hampshire.  While  some  states  grant  divorce  on 
trivial  grounds,  such  as  incompatibility  of  temper,  ninety- 
five  per  cent  of  the  divorces  are  granted  for  such  grave 
reasons  as  desertion,  adultery,  cruelty,  imprisonment  for 
crime,  habitual  drunkenness  and  non-support.  The  fol- 
lowing statistics  will  give  a  better  idea  of  the  importance 
of  the  various  legal  grounds.  Figures  are  for  the  year 
1916. 

Grounds  for  Divorce                          Per  Cent  %  to  Men  %  to  Women 

Desertion    36.8  50.  30.8 

Cruelty    28.3  17.4  33.2 

Unfaithfulness    11.5  20.3  7.5 

Drunkenness    3.4  0.8  4.5 

Non-support    4.7  ....  6.9 

Combinations  of  preceding  grounds  8.6  4.3  10.5 

other  grounds 6.8  7.2  6.5 

From  these  data  it  will  easily  be  seen  that  the  fault  is 
not  so  much  with  the  laxity  of  our  laws  as  with  the 
decay  of  our  family  life.  While  drunkenness  is  given  in 
a  few  cases,  it  formerly  figured  as  a  contributing  cause 
in  one-third  of  the  divorces  granted  to  the  wife  for  cruelty, 
and  in  one-fifth  of  the  non-support  cases,  and  as  an  in- 
direct cause  in  18.3  per  cent  of  the  divorces  granted  to 
the  wife.  The  reason  why  unfaithfulness  is  given  by  the 
man  more  frequently  than  by  the  wife  is  that  our  double 
standard  of  morals  makes  it  more  difficult  to  secure 
evidence  against  the  man  than  against  the  woman.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  number  of  divorces  granted  for  cruelty 
and  non-support  has  doubled. 

The  fact  that  divorce  has  increased  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  family  life  is  less  happy  or  less  successful  than 
it  ever  has  been.  It  means  rather  that  more  is  demanded, 
especially  by  the  wife.  Conduct  which  was  formerly  over- 
looked is  now  considered  sufficient  grounds  for  divorce. 
The  wife  demands  not  only  chastity  and  freedom  from 
excessive  abuse  on  the  part  of  the  husband,  but  also  a 
partnership  in  the  family  for  herself.  The  husband  also 
demands  self-sacrifice  and  loyalty.  While  formerly  man 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family  223 

and  wife  expected  to  live  together,  now  they  demand  that 
they  be  able  to  live  together  happily.  The  general  in- 
crease of  education  makes  this  demand  all  the  more  im- 
portant. We  are  living  on  a  higher  moral  plane  than  in 
the  past  and  the  increase  in  divorce  is  merely  an  evidence 
of  it. 

Causes  for  the  Increase  in  Divorce. — The  question  arises, 
Why  has  the  United  States  such  a  high  divorce  rate? 
What  is  there  about  our  civilization  which  works  havoc 
Avith  the  stability  of  our  family  ties?  Some  of  the  reasons 
are  undoubtedly  the  following: 

1.  High  Standard  of  Living  Required  in  the  United 
States. — The  demand  for  not  only  the  necessities  of  life  but 
for  comforts  as  well,  although  thoroughly  desirable, 
brings  about  friction.  It  tends  to  limit  the  size  of 
families,  hence  produces  a  greater  risk  of  unhappiness. 
Women  to-day  are  not  contented  unless  they  receive  the 
comforts  and  often  the  luxuries  of  life.  When  these  are 
impossible,  disappointment  ensues;  too  often  this  leads 
to  the  divorce  court.  The  higher  standard  of  morality 
and  family  life  in  general  also  leads  to  dissatisfaction. 

2.  Increased  Cost  of  Living. — An  increase  in  financial 
strain  is  closely  related  to  the  high  standard  of  living 
now  demanded.  Worry  over  finances  brings  about  fric- 
tion. Wages  are  slower  to  increase  than  prices,  so  often 
while  the  expenses  are  increasing  the  income  is  stationary. 
This  problem  is  accentuated  when  the  husband  does  not 
take  his  wife  into  partnership  with  him  in  regard  to  the 
finances;  when  as  a  result  she  does  not  understand  this 
financial  strain,  she  does  not  appreciate  the  worry  of  the 
husband.  Too  often  the  wife,  ignorant  of  true  values,  is 
consequently  extravagant  and  not  worthy  to  be  taken 
into  partnership,  even  if  her  husband  so  desires.  Girls 
are  too  little  trained  to  recognize  the  real  value  of  money ; 
not  having  to  earn  it,  they  do  not  know  how  to  spend 
it.  Formerly  the  wife  left  financial  matters  to  the  hus- 
band, now  she  is  demanding  an  equal  voice  in  the  financial 
management,  but  very  often  she  is  not  capable  of  handling 
finances  wisely.  This  causes  friction  and  is  one  reason 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

for  the  increase  in  the  number  of  divorces  granted  for 
non-support  and  desertion. 

3.  Growth  of  Modern  Industrialism. — The  new  industrial 
system  has  made  it  possible  for  women  to  obtain  employ- 
ment and  thus  become  independent.     This  condition  has 
tended  to  break  up  the  home.     When  the  wife  enters 
industry,  the  home  is  disrupted  and  little  attention  is 
paid  to  household  matters.     The  wife  does  not  have  the 
time  to  prepare  the  meals  or  to  keep  the  house  tidy. 
Consequently  the  home  is  less  attractive.    Then,  too,  when 
girls  enter  industry,  they  neglect  to  learn  domestic  arts; 
so  when  they  marry  they  do  not  know  how  to  cook,  sew, 
take  care  of  children,  or  keep  house.     The  home  thus 
becomes  uninviting  and  married  life  unsuccessful. 

4.  Growth  of  Woman's  Individualism. — The  growth  of 
woman's  independence,  already  considered  as  a  problem 
of  the  family,  has  tended  to  increase  family  jealousy, 
especially  if  the  wife  is  also  a  breadwinner  and  is  econom- 
ically independent  of  the  husband.     Other  contributing 
factors  are  the  feminist  and  woman  suffrage  movements, 
which  are  evidences  of  a  change  to  which  we  have  not 
as  yet  adjusted  ourselves. 

5.  The  Rapid  Growth  of  Cities. — As  has  been  shown,  the 
movement  of  population  to  the  city  has  undoubtedly  been 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  increase  in  divorce,  for  it  has 
increased  the  overcrowding  and  otherwise  disturbing  in- 
fluences and  has  so  tended  to  break  up  home  life. 

6.  Late  Marriages. — Postponement  of  marriage  lessens 
the  possibility  of  happiness.    Not  only  do  women  become 
self-supporting  and  thus  economically  independent,  but 
those  who  marry  late  in  life  find  it  more  difficult  to  adjust 
themselves  to  "the  new  relationship.     After  people  pass 
the  age  of  thirty  their  habits  become  crystallized;  it  is 
very  difficult  for  them  to  change  their  views  and  manners 
of  living.    They  become  accustomed  to  having  things  just 
so,  and  think  that  their  happiness  depends  upon  having 
them  so.    If  they  married  before  these  habits  had  become 
fixed,  the  man  and  woman  might  easily  adjust  themselves 
to  each  other. 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

This  condition  seems  to  be  growing  worse:  the  time 
required  for  preparation  for  a  professional  career  is  con- 
stantly lengthening.  After  four  years  in  high  school  the 
student  requires  four  more  for  college,  then  three  or  four 
for  the  professional  school.  Even  with  the  combination 
of  these  latter  two  periods  in  the  modern  university,  six 
years  are  required  to  prepare  for  law  and  seven  or  eight 
for  medicine;  and  that  is  not  all,  for  it  takes  from  one 
to  three  years  for  one  to  become  established.  For 
medicine,  one  or  two  years  in  a  hospital  are  generally 
considered  to  be  necessary;  then  one  or  two  more  to 
acquire  a  practice.  As  it  works  out,  the  ordinary  profes- 
sional man  has  reached  the  age  of  thirty,  or  is  approaching 
it,  before  he  can  think  of  getting  married.  This  situation 
lessens  the  chances  of  happiness.  At  present  we  can  see 
no  remedy  for  this  condition.  Possibly  the  future  will 
present  a  workable  plan  by  which  couples  may  marry  and 
still  continue  their  period  of  preparation. 

7.  Decay  of  Religious  Control. — While,  in  the  belief  of 
the  present  writer,  religion  is  not  decaying,  but  is  growing 
purer  and  loftier,  the  control  of  the  church  is  decreasing. 
Religion  is  becoming  more  a  personal  matter.    Marriage 
is  being  considered  less  a  religious  ceremony.    The  various 
churches  are  preaching  less  urgently  against  divorce.    It 
is  not  now  considered  so  much  a  violation  of  divine  com- 
mand as  it  was  formerly. 

8.  Increased  Knowledge  of  the  Law. — Formerly  people 
did  not  know  that  they  could  be  freed  from  marriage 
bonds ;  now  they  know  that  they  can.    Hence  many  who, 
a  few  generations  ago,  would  not  have  thought  about 
divorce  now  seek  separation.     There  is  less  fear  or  awe 
of  the  courts  now  than  formerly;  the  press  and  popular 
magazines  have  familiarized  the  common  people  with  legal 
processes.    Hence  divorces  are  more  freely  sought. 

9.  The  Granting  of  Divorce  on  Trivial  Grounds. — The 
letting  down  of  legal  barriers  to  divorce,  and  the  change 
in  public  opinion  regarding  the  gravity  of  marriage  and 
divorce,  are  considered  by  many  as  prominent  causes  of 
divorce   increase.     Canada   and   England   are   cited   as 


226          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

examples  of  countries  where  divorce  laws  are  strict  and 
where  as  a  result  there  are  few  divorces.  This  phase  of 
the  question  has  probably;  been  over-emphasized.  The 
increase  of  divorce  is  due  more  to  the  breaking  down  of 
home  life  than  to  the  laxity  of  our  laws.  Some  point  to 
the  lax  laws  of  a  few  states,  especially  Nevada,  and 
assert  that  people  rush  to  such  states  for  divorce;  but 
this  rush  is  exaggerated,  for  few  go  outside  of  their  own 
state  to  be  divorced;  in  fact,  only  about  one-fifth  of  the 
divorces  are  granted  outside  of  the  state  in  which  the 
couple  was  married.  If  courts  are  lax  it  is  because  public 
opinion  to  a  large  extent  demands  or  at  least  allows  that 
laxity.  Often  our  courts  are  overburdened  with  work 
and  cannot  give  a  divorce  case  the  attention  that  should 
be  given  it,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  average 
time  allowed  for  a  divorce  case  is  something  like  fifteen 
minutes.  At  any  rate,  divorces  are  exceedingly  easy  to 
obtain. 

On  the  whole,  the  United  States,  with  its  varied  life, 
hustle  and  bustle,  high  nervous  tensions,  changing  climate, 
and  rapid  growth  of  cities  and  industry,  may  be  a  country 
in  which  we  should  naturally  expect  to  find  a  high  divorce 
rate.  Our  condition,  indeed,  may  not  be  nearly  so  ab- 
normal as  one  would  think  at  first  glance.  Being  in  the 
transition  stage,  we  need  not  be  unduly  alarmed  about 
a  high  divorce  rate.  There  will  be  more  cause  for  alarm, 
however,  if  divorce  keeps  on  increasing,  especially  if  it 
reaches  the  percentage  mentioned  by  Professor  Willcox. 
If  it  brings  with  it  an  increase  in  immorality  such  as  it 
did  in  Rome,  and  if  family  relations  become  lax,  then 
there  will  be  cause  for  alarm.  As  yet  that  condition  has 
not  appeared  in  this  country.  Immorality  is  not  so  serious 
as  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  when  we  had  few  divorces.  The 
moral  condition  in  this  country  is  constantly  growing 
better. 

Results  of  Divorce. — Some  of  the  results  of  divorce  are 
noticeable,  such  as  the  increase  in  juvenile  delinquency. 
A  child  needs  the  care  and  attention  of  both  parents,  and 
when  the  home  is  broken  up  it  does  not  get  them.  Some- 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          227 

times  it  is  better  for  the  child  if  the  parents  separate 
than  if  they  live  in  a  state  of  constant  quarreling  and 
fighting ;  but  when  we  come  to  examine  conditions  in  the 
families  from  which  come  the  inmates  of  our  reform 
schools  and  the  children  who  appear  before  the  juvenile 
courts,  we  find  that  the  majority  of  these  unfortunates 
come  from  homes  that  have  been  broken  up.  Professor 
Ellwood,  in  an  investigation  made  in  1909,  found  that 
of  the  7,575  children  in«thirty-four  state  reform  schools 
29.6  per  cent  came  from  families  in  which  there  had  been 
a  divorce  or  desertion;  33  per  cent  in  which  one  of  the 
parents  was  dead;  and  38  per  cent  from  homes  demoral- 
ized by  drink,  vice,  or  crime.  Only  a  few  came  from 
homes  that  were  perfectly  normal.  Of  4,278  children  in- 
vestigated in  four  juvenile  courts,  23.7  came  from  homes 
in  which  there  had  been  divorce  or  desertion,  while  27.8 
per  cent  came  from  homes  in  which  only  one  parent  was 
living  or  both  parents  were  dead.  The  same  was  true 
of  inmates  of  homes  for  dependent  children,  for  in  the 
thirty-two  institutions  investigated  it  was  found  that  24.7 
per  cent  of  the  children  were  from  homes  in  which  there 
had  been  divorce  or  desertion ;  47.5  per  cent  had  lost  one 
or  both  parents.  In  short,  it  requires  the  care  of  more 
than  one  parent  to  bring  up  a  child  and  produce  a  normal, 
well-rounded  adult.  When,  broken  into,  the  family  fails 
in  its  function,  and  some  other  institution,  such  as  the 
juvenile  court,  has  to  step  in  to  perform  its  duties. 

If  the  evil  caused  by  the  breaking  up  of  a  family  is 
not  corrected  by  the  juvenile  court  or  some  other  institu- 
tion, the  child  drifts  into  still  more  lawless  ways,  and 
instead  of  appearing  before  the  juvenile  court  he  arrives 
in  the  adult  court  and  goes  to  the  penitentiary.  History 
shows  that  immorality  follows  lax  family  conditions,  and 
while  immorality  is  on  the  decline  in  the  United  States 
at  present,  it  would  decrease  still  faster  if  we  held  our- 
selves to  a  plane  of  high  family  morality. 

Remedies  Suggested. — Since  the  trouble  arises  from  the 
decay  of  family  life,  it  is  difficult  to  suggest  remedies. 
There  is  no  one  cause  that  can  be  held  responsible.  The 


228  Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

causes  are  too  numerous  and  the  trouble  too  deep-rooted 
to  be  weeded  out  by  any  legal  action  or  by  any  one 
program  of  action.  Some  people  even  go  to  the  op- 
posite extreme  and  say  that  the  fault  is  not  with  divorce 
but  with  the  family  as  an  institution;  that  instead  of 
limiting  divorce  we  should  make  divorce  absolutely  free 
and  allow  any  couple  to  separate,  if  they  care  to  do  so, 
and  that  it  is  a  greater  crime  to  compel  a  couple  to  live 
together  unhappily  than  to  allow  them  to  separate.  While 
there  is  truth  in  this  viewpoint  it  is  a  dangerous  policy 
to  advocate,  for  the  practice  would  merely  cover  up  im- 
morality and  put  the  cloak  of  decency  and  law  upon  all 
forms  of  vice  and  sexual  laxity.  It  would  rob  the  mar- 
riage bond  of  its  sacredness.  As  stated  previously,  the 
source  of  the  trouble  is  not  altogether  with  our  laws  or 
lack  of  them;  however,  certain  legal  measures  might  be 
advantageous,  even  if  they  did  not  solve  the  problem. 
Among  legal  measures  often  suggested  are  the  following : 
1.  A  Universal  Marriage  and  Divorce  Law. — Instead  of 
each  state  having  a  different  code  there  should  be  one 
Federal  code  for  marriage  and  divorce  to  cover  the  whofe 
country.  Under  our  present  condition  if  a  couple  cannot 
obtain  a  divorce  in  one  state,  they  can  move  into  another; 
if  they  cannot  marry  in  their  own  state,  all  they  have 
to  do  is  to  cross  a  border.  This  is  especially  true  of 
marriages  under  the  legal  age  and  of  marriages  after 
divorce.  Some  states  forbid  marriage  for  one  or  two 
years  after  divorce.  Under  such  conditions  the  couple 
go  to  a  state  which  does  not  put  such  obstacles  in  Cupid's 
way.  This  practice  lowers  the  prestige  of  the  law  besides 
degrading  the  sanctity  of  marriage.  It  is  argued  that 
marriage  and  divorce  are  national  questions  rather  than 
state  ones.  Yet  there  are  objections  to  such  a  code.  Con- 
ditions are  different  in  the  various  states  and  what  might 
be  fair  and  just  in  "West  Virginia  might  not  be  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  what  might  be  needed  in  New  York  might 
be  just  the  opposite  in  New  Mexico.  Then,  too,  if  such 
a  code  should  be  drafted,  at  best  it  would  only  be  an 
average  code.  Some  states  have  high  codes  and  others 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          229 

do  not,  and  a  code  which  would  be  accepted  by  the 
majority  would  be  only  an  average  one,  and  would  lower 
the  standard  upheld  in  some  states.  On  the  whole,  a 
uniform  marriage  and  divorce  code,  provided  a  really  high 
code  could  be  adopted,  would  probably  be  a  step  in  the 
right  direction,  but  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  get  such 
a  code  adopted.  It  is  more  a  question  of  expediency  than 
of  theory. 

2.  Court  of  Domestic  Relations. — Another  reform  meas- 
ure which  is  meeting  with  popular  favor  and  which  is 
being  adopted  in  our  large  cities,  is  that  of  a  court  of 
domestic  relations.  Such  a  court  has  a  special  judge  who 
gives  all  his  or  her  (such  a  judge  is  frequently  a  woman) 
time  to  domestic  cases.  All  divorce  cases  and  suits  in- 
volving family  troubles  come  before  this  court.  Its 
machinery  is  directed  especially  to  the  handling  of  this 
type  of  work.  Time  is  taken  to  look  into  the  cases,  and 
instead  of  trying  to  dispose  of  them  by  granting  the 
divorce  in  the  shortest  possible  manner,  the  court  tries 
to  remedy  the  trouble,  and  if  possible  reconcile  the  hus- 
band and  wife  and  induce  them  to  live  together.  Very 
often  the  cause  is  trivial  and  can  be  easily  remedied; 
in  fact  a  large  percentage  of  the  cases  coming  before  the 
Domestic  Relations  Court  of  Chicago  are  settled  out  of 
court,  the  cases  being  dropped  from  the  docket. 

One  objection  to  such  a  remedy  is  that  it  often  comes 
too  late  to  do  any  good,  the  case  not  being  brought  into 
court  until  the  breach  has  been  widened  beyond  repair. 
In  connection  with  this  court  has  developed  the  practice 
of  hiring  a  divorce  proctor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  inquire 
carefully  into  the  family  life  of  the  applicants  for  divorce, 
in  order  to  see  if  there  is  any  fraud,  to  ascertain  whether 
the  grounds  given  in  the  application  are  really  the  true 
causes,  and  to  find  out  if  there  is  any  collusion  betweeri 
the  husband  and  wife,  such,  for  example,  as  the  husband 
leaving  home  for  a  time  sufficient  to  constitute  legal 
grounds  for  divorce  for  desertion.  In  Kansas  City,  such 
a  proctor  cut  down  the  number  of  divorces  granted  30 
per  cent.  Such  work  does  an  enormous  amount  of  good 


230          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

in  checking  the  granting  of  divorces  for  trivial  reasons 
and  in  preventing  the  unnecessary  breaking  up  of  homes. 
It  does  not,  however,  get  at  the  root  of  the  problem, 
or  stop  marital  unhappiness,  which  is  the  real  problem. 
Measures  for  the  alleviation  of  the  trouble  do  not  prevent 
the  causes  that  produce  the  problem.  Their  use  should 
be  extended,  but  they  should  not  be  relied  upon  to  solve 
the  difficulty. 

3.  Restricting  the  Grounds  for  Divorce. — Those  who  ad- 
vocate restricting  the  grounds  for  divorce  would  make 
divorce  harder  to  obtain  by  limiting  them  to  the  five  or 
six  most  serious,  i.e.,  adultery,  crime,  cruelty,  drunken- 
ness, desertion,  and  non-support.     While  this  restriction 
might  reduce  the  number  of  divorces,  it  would  not  solve 
the  problem;  it  would  merely  cover  it  up.    It  would  be 
like  easing  the  pain  of  a  broken  leg  without  trying  to 
set  the  bone. 

4.  The  Requirement  of  a  Stated  Time  Before  Remarriage. 
— The  requirement  of  an  intervening  period  of  one  or 
two  years  before  remarriage  would  put  a  damper  on  try- 
ing to  obtain  a  divorce  in  order  to  marry  somebody  else. 
If  in  addition  the  divorce  were  not  made  completely  opera- 
tive till  a  year  or  two  after  being  granted,  and  became 
null  and  void  if  the  couple  decided  to  live  together  again, 
it  would  give  the  couple  a  chance  to  reconsider  and  would 
make  reunion  less  troublesome  and  less  spectacular.    Such 
requirements  are  all  very  well,  but  they  do  not  solve — 
they  merely  alleviate.     They  would  undoubtedly  remedy 
a  few  cases,  but  not  many. 

5.  The  Placing  of  Restrictions  Upon  Marriage. — The  for- 
bidding of.  marriage  to  those  afflicted  with  venereal  dis- 
ease, to  defectives,  to  those  exhibiting  too  great  differ- 
ences in  age  or  race,  to  immature  persons,  and  to  persons 
with  insufficient  means — such  restrictions  deal  with  the 
real  sources  of  the  trouble,  the  marriage  of  those  unfitted 
for  each  other.     The  solution  lies  in  the  prevention  of 
unwise  mating  of  people,  rather  than  in  the  separation 
of  those  already  mated.     A  few  states  have  such  laws 
to-day,  particularly  those  laws  requiring  a  medical  ex- 


j  yroblems  of  the  Modern  Family          231 

amination  before  marriage,  and  those  forbidding  the  mar- 
riage of  insane  and  feeble-minded.  Also,  most  states  for- 
bid the  marriage  of  the  very  young  without  parental 
consent.  It  is  to  the  extension  of  such  laws  that  we 
must  look  for  our  greatest  reform.  But  in  this  regard 
public  opinion  is  stronger  than  law.  If  we  have  the  laws 
without  public  opinion  back  of  them,  they  will  become 
dead  letters.  On  the  other  hand,  if  public  opinion  demands 
these  regulations  strongly  enough,  there  will  be  little  need 
of  such  laws.  It  is  this  public  opinion  which  needs  our 
attention  and  fostering.  We  do  not  put  enough  stress 
upon  the  importance  and  real  meaning  of  marriage.  We 
too  often  rush  into  it  without  any  thought  of  the  future, 
merely  being  captivated  by  a  pretty  face,  a  fat  pocket- 
book,  or  a  dashing  manner.  If  people  moved  towards 
marriage  less  hastily,  made  more  careful  plans  for  the 
future,  and  really  understood  the  partners  they  had 
chosen  for  life,  there  would  be  fewer  people  rushing  to 
the  divorce  courts. 

6.  Moral  Education. — It  is  to  moral  education  that  we 
must  look  for  the  principal  remedy  of  the  divorce  evil. 
Habits,  customs,  and  ideals  are  the  results  of  public 
opinion ;  public  opinion  can  be  molded  by  education;  not 
by  laws.  Law  is  merely  the  reflection  of  public  opinion, 
not  the  creator  of  it.  It  takes  time  and  advertising  to 
build  up  public  sentiment.  The  press,  magazines,  lectures, 
books,  churches,  and  schools  have  to  be  brought  into  use. 
And  it  is  through  such  mediums  that  we  must  look  for 
the  solution  of  this  problem,  just  as  for  the  solution  of 
any  other  problem.  There  are  causes  back  of  problems, 
and  these  have  to  be  considered  and  dealt  with.  The 
present  divorce  evil  is  merely  the  symptom  of  a  dis- 
organized home.  This  disorganized  home  is  largely  the 
result  of  a  readjustment  to  new  conditions,  the  change 
from  the  remnant  of  the  old  patriarchal  family  to  the 
family  of  partnership,  love,  and  co-operation. 

As  soon  as  the  public  becomes  educated  to  this  change, 
gets  accustomed  to  it,  and  prefers  it  to  any  other  condi- 
tion, then  the  divorce  problem  will  disappear.  If  marriage 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

is  based  upon  mutual  love  and  appreciation,  and  the  home 
is  held  together  by  sympathy  and  co-operation,  there  will 
be  less  desire  for  separation.  Under  our  present  condi- 
tions divorce  is  not  necessarily  bad.  If  the  home  is 
unhappy  and  the  real  functions  of  the  family  cannot  be 
performed,  it  is  often  a  blessing  to  break  up  that  home. 
While  children  complicate  the  situation  it  is  impossible 
to  forbid  divorce  to  those  having  children;  it  would  be 
absurd  to  have  one  standard  for  the  families  with  children 
and  another  for  those  who  are  childless,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  such  a  distinction  would  merely  put  a  premium 
upon  childlessness.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  limit 
divorce  to  those  cases  where  family  ties  are  irretrievably 
broken.  Divorce  should  be  discouraged  rather  than  en- 
couraged. The  teaching  of  domestic  science  and  educa- 
tion for  parenthood  should  be  encouraged  in  our  public 
schools.  The  church,  instead  of  preaching  against  the 
sins  of  divorce,  should  try  to  remedy  the  conditions  which 
cause  it.  The  spread  of  the  knowledge  of  venereal  dis- 
eases, the  stamping  out  of  vice,  the  abolishing  of  the 
liquor  traffic,  extension  of  the  work  of  visiting  nurses, 
remedying  the  causes  of  poverty  and  crime — in  fact  the 
extension  of  all  agencies  which  are  working  for  a  purer 
and  nobler  life  and  a  loftier  and  more  efficient  civiliza- 
tion— such  should  be  the  program  of  those  craving  better 
family  relationships.  The  schools,  the  churches,  and  all 
altruistic  organizations  should  struggle  to  carry  out  such 
a  program,  rather  than  to  bring  about  legislative  reforms. 
Let  them  create  a  spirit  of  altruism  in  the  public  mind ;  then 
the  problem  will  solve  itself. 

Family  Income. — In  our  study  of  the  divorce  problem 
we  found  that  difficulties  centering  in  the  family  income 
were  one  of  the  leading  causes  of  divorce.  We  shall  find 
the  same  factors  operative  in  other  problems,  such  as 
poverty,  crime,  immorality,  drunkenness,  and  sickness. 
The  family  income  fixes  the  standard  of  living,  affects 
the  health  of  the  entire  family,  and  determines  the  size, 
convenience,  healthfulness  and  location  of  the  house  in 
which  the  family  lives.  Because  it  determines  the  amount 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          233 

and  quality  of  food,  it  affects  the  physical  stamina.  It 
likewise  governs  the  clothing  worn,  not  only  as  to  the 
style  and  cut  but  also  as  to  quantity  and  comfort.  It 
determines  the  amount  of  education  the  children  shall 
obtain,  whether  they  can  go  on  to  high  school,  college, 
or  training  school,  even  whether  they  can  go  to  school 
at  all,  or  whether  they  will  be  forced  into  industry  in 
order  to  add  to  the  income.  It  decides  whether  the  mother 
may  remain  at  home,  or  must  go  into  industry  to  supply 
the  deficiency  in  the  husband's  income.  It  provides — or 
fails  to  provide — the  health,  wealth,  pleasures,  prosperity, 
and  efficiency,  not  only  of  the  present  generation,  but 
that  of  the  future  generations  as  well.  It  determines 
whether  or  not  the  next  generation  will  be  stunted 
physically,  mentally  and  morally.  If  the  father  cannot 
earn  enough  for  the  family,  and  if  the  wife  and  young 
children  are  forced  into  industry,  the  very  purpose  of 
the  home  is  defeated. 

Various  estimates  have  been  made  as  to  the  income 
necessary  for  maintaining  the  standard  of  decency  re- 
quired of  the  average  family  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  was  estimated  in  1913  that  an  income 
of  $800  a  year  was  required  to  enable  a  family  to  live 
in  the  stock-yards  district  of  Chicago.  The  street  clean- 
ing department  of  New  York  a  little  later  estimated  that 
at  least  $840  a  year  was  needed  for  a  member  of  that 
force  to  support  the  average  family  of  five.  It  was  also 
calculated  that  for  a  family  to  live  before  the  war  in  the 
average  small  town  of  about  5,000  population  an  income  of 
$600  a  year  was  necessary.  All  of  these  estimates  were  prob- 
ably fairly  accurate.  Yet  how  many  unskilled  men  were  able 
to  earn  even  the  $600  necessary  to  live  in  the  average 
small  town?  The  wage  for  day  labor  ranged  from  $1.25 
to  $2.50  a  day  and  on  the  average  was  about  $1.75  or 
$2.00  per  day,  depending  upon  the  demand.  If  the  laborer 
earned  $2.00  a  day  and  worked  on  an  average  250  days 
a  year — an  extremely  high  average — he  failed  to  make 
the  $600  required.  This  meant  that  the  extra  $100  had 
to  be  earned  by  the  wife  or  children,  or  the  faidJy  did 


234          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

without,  unless  the  husband  was  able  to  earn  part  of  it 
by  means  of  a  garden  or  some  other  home  industry.  The 
average  wage  in  the  stock-yards  district  of  Chicago  was 
not  far  from  $7.50  a  week,  and  if  the  worker  was  employed 
forty  weeks  in  a  year — a  high  average  again — he  could 
earn  only  about  $300  of  the  requisite  $800. 

These  illustrations  are  merely  taken  at  random.  The 
same  condition  existed  everywhere.  The  white  worker 
in  the  South  could  not  earn  a  living  wage.  The  railroads 
of  this  country  before  the  war  did  not  pay  living  wages 
to  their  section  hands;  the  mills  of  our  manufacturing 
cities  did  not  pay  their  common  help  enough  to  support 
families.  The  department  stores  did  not  give  their  clerks 
sufficient  even  to  support  themselves.  The  wife  of  tho 
average  laboring  man  was  compelled  to  supplement  her 
husband's  income  by  going  into  a  factory,  working  for 
her  neighbors,  taking  in  washing,  or  some  such  means. 
This  meant  that  she  could  not  attend  to  home  duties  as 
she  should,  and  that  the  children  were  neglected.  It 
meant  also  that  the  children  did  not  have  any  opportunity 
to  better  their  condition.  There  was  certainly  something 
vitally  wrong  with  our  whole  industrial  system  if  we  did 
not  allow  the  laboring  man  to  earn  enough  to  support 
a  family  in  decency;  yet  such  was  the  condition  under 
normal  times. 

This  matter  of  income  affects  not  only  the  laboring 
man  but  nearly  all  classes.  It  is  often  just  as  hard  for 
a  professional  man  to  make  both  ends  meet  according 
to  the  standard  demanded  of  him,  as  it  is  for  the  laboring 
man.  The  minister  who  received  only  $600  a  year,  and 
the  university  instructor  who  received  but  $1,000,  had  as 
big  a  problem  as  the  laboring  man  with  $2.00  a  day.  Yet 
such  salaries  have  been  quite  common.  Many  ministers 
have  received  less  than  $600,  and  many  of  our  universities 
have  been  shortsighted  enough  to  offer  instructors  but 
$900  or  $1,000  a  year,  with  the  result  that  their  best 
trained  men  leave  them  to  go  to  smaller  institutions  or 
into  other  work.  The  ethics  of  offering  a  minister  a  salary 
of  $500  or  $600  a  year,  or  a  university  instructor  one 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          235 

of  $900  or  $1,000,  seems  about  on  a  par  with  that  of  the 
department  store  superintendent  who  offers  the  salesgirl 
a  salary  of  $5  or  $6  a  week,  and  when  she  complains 
that  she  can  not  live  on  it,  asks  her  if  she  hasn't  a 
gentleman  friend  to  help  support  her;  or  with  that  of 
the  superintendent  who  boasts  that  his  store  employs  only 
girls  who  live  at  home.  For  such  salaries  absolutely 
forbid  the  professional  man  to  support  a  family  on  the 
standard  required  of  him.  It  means  that  he  is  forbidden 
to  marry,  or  if  he  marries  that  he  is  denied  the  luxury 
of  children.  Our  churches  and  universities  are  supposed 
to  teach  morals  and  ethics,  while  at  the  same  time  they 
have  contributed  to  some  of  the  problems  that  society 
has  been  trying  to  solve. 

All  the  estimates  just  given  were  made  under  normal 
times  before  the  Great  "War.  During  the  war,  prices  of 
practically  all  commodities  rose,  some  of  course  going 
higher  than  others,  but  the  cost  of  living  practically 
doubled,  in  fact  in  some  places  went  considerably  higher. 
So  if  the  estimates  given  above  for  a  minimum  standard 
of  living  in  different  sections  of  the  country  and  in  dif- 
ferent industries  were  doubled,  the  result  would  not  be 
far  from  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the  latter  part  of 
1919  and  the  early  part  of  1920.  At  that  time  $1200 
would  probably  have  been  a  minimum  for  a  working 
man's  family  in  the  average  town  in  the  United  States. 
In  some  places  wrhere  food  was  abundant  and  rent  had 
not  advanced  very  much,  a  man  might  possibly  support 
a  family  on  less,  but  in  many  places  more  would  be  neces- 
sary. For  a  professional  man  or  any  representative  of 
the  so-called  "middle  class,"  $1800  would  have  been  pos- 
sibly a  conservative  estimate  of  the  necessary  minimum. 

The  following  are  a  few  budgets  that  were  compiled 
with  these  changes  in  prices  taken  into  consideration:  a 
Minimum  Budget  Estimate  for  Pacific  Coast  Workers, 
1917,  of  $1476.40 ;  the  Budget  awarded  in  the  Seattle  and 
Tacoma  Street  Railway  Arbitration,  1917,  of  $1505.60; 
the  Budget  submitted  to  National  War  Labor  Board  by 
W.  F.  Ogburn,  1918,  of  $1760.50 ;  Budget  for  the  Govern- 


236          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

ment  Employee's  Family  in  "Washington,  D.  C.,  1919,  of 
$2262.47  at  market  prices  and  of  $2015.56  with  allow- 
ances for  possible  saving  through  extreme  thrift,  high 
intelligence,  great  industry  and  good  fortune  in  purchas- 
ing at  the  lowest  prices  and  a  maximum  of  home  work 
being  done  by  the  wife;  Wage  Earners  in  Fall  River, 
Massachusetts  at  an  extreme  minimum  of  $1267.76  and 
with  a  more  liberal  standard  of  $1573.90;  and  for 
Lawrence,  Massachusetts  on  the  same  plan  of  $1385.79 
and  $1658.04,  these  being  taken  in  October  and  November, 
1919,  respectively.  The  latest  and  probably  the  best  was 
the  carefully  estimated  budget  of  articles  necessary  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  family  of  five  in  health  and  decency 
which  has  been  worked  out  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  for  1920,  with  the  estimated  cost  of 
from  $1500  to  $2100,  depending  upon  location. 

To  meet  the  increase  in  prices,  wages  in  many  indus- 
tries went  up  in  proportion.  In  some  lines,  especially  the 
manufacture  of  munitions  and  other  industries  engaged 
in  war  work,  wages  more  than  met  the  advance  in  prices. 
In  many  others  wages  were  much  slower  to  rise  and  for 
a  long  time  in  many  lines  did  not  advance  at  all.  Business 
men  took  advantage  of  the  shortage  of  commodities  and 
the  increased  demand  to  increase  their  earnings,  in  many 
cases  at  an  enormous  rate.  On  the  other  hand,  profes- 
sional men,  especially  those  engaged  on  salaries,  were  per- 
haps the  hardest  hit  of  all,  for  their  salaries  did  not 
increase  in  proportion  to  the  increase  in  prices.  In  some 
lines  they  did  not  advance  at  all  because  of  the  decrease 
in  demand ;  this  was  especially  true  of  teachers  until  the 
war  was  over.  In  other  professions  salaries  increased  but 
slightly  until  towards  the  end  of  the  war,  or  after  it.  In 
general,  the  wages  of  working  men  in  factories  and  in 
industry  barely  kept  up  with  increased  prices;  salaries 
did  not  do  so. 

After  we  settle  down  to  normal  times  again,  an 
equilibrium  will  be  reached,  but  it  will  be  a  new 
equilibrium.  Many  prices  will  be  higher,  some  will  pos- 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          237 

sibly  be  lower.  Income,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  dif- 
ferent, depending  upon  the  new  valuation  placed  by 
society  upon  various  kinds  of  work.  During  the  war 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  mechanical  work,  and  profes- 
sional services  were  not  valued  so  highly.  After  normal 
times  return,  a  new  set  of  valuations  will  be  worked  out. 
Prices  and  incomes  in  general  will  settle,  but  probably 
will  never  reach  the  old  level.  Beginning  with  the  latter 
part  of  1920,  prices  began  to  drop  and  continued  to  do 
so  with  brjef  relapses  during  1921  till,  at  the  opening  of 
1922,  they  were  not  quite  seventy-five  per  cent  higher  than 
before  the  war.  In  general,  they  are  still  dropping  but  more 
slowly,  and  just  where  the  new  equilibrium  will  be  reached 
nobody  can  tell.  The  decline  may  continue  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  reaction  may  set  in  and  prices  begin  to  rise 
again. 

While  wages  followed  prices  they  were  always  slightly 
in  the  rear,  ranging  from  2  to  20  per  cent.  After  the 
war  when  prices  began  to  drop,  wages  did  not  go  down 
as  rapidly  and  for  a  time  were  proportionally  higher  than 
were  prices;  but  in  general  the  laborer  was  no  better  off, 
for  work  was  scarce  and  unemployment  began  to  appear. 
Now  .  the  problem  is  to  get  work,  rather  than  in  regard 
to  the  amount  of  the  wages.  In  time  a  new  wage  level 
will  be  reached,  which  of  course  will  correspond  with  the 
price  level.  However,  neither  will  be  like  the  old  levels, 
for  society  will  place  new  values  on  certain  commodities 
and  different  occupations.  While  during  the  war  the 
skilled  trades  were  possibly  the  best  off,  a  new  tendency 
apparently  is  setting  in,  placing  a  greater  emphasis  upon 
professions  like  teaching,  the  ministry,  and  public  service; 
but  whether  such  professions  will  ever  receive  a  reward  in 
proportion  to  the  training  necessary  and  the  service  ren- 
dered, is  an  open  question. 

Spending  of  Incomes.  —  In  many  ways  the  spending  of 
income  is  more  important  than  the  earning  of  it.  Many 
families  receive  enough,  but  do  not  know  how  to  spend 
wisely  what  they  earn,  wasting  too  much  on  useless  pur- 


V 


238          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

chases,  such  as  liquor,  tobacco,  bargain  sales  when  the 
articles  bought  are  not  needed,  and  extravagant  commod- 
ities. Some  people  always  manage  to  get  one  hundred 
cents  out  of  every  dollar;  others  are  able  to  get  but  fifty 
or  sixty.  Some  people  always  pay  more  than  others  for 
the  same  thing.  If  our  schools  took  up  the  teaching  of 
real  values  and  fair  prices  of  ordinary  articles,  it  might 
be  of  great  help.  Our  settlements  are  taking  up  this  work, 
and  the  visiting  nurses  are  endeavoring  to  teach  families 
how  to  spend  their  money.  We  see  this  difference  in  spend- 
ing ability  in  all  walks  of  life.  Perhaps  the  college  com- 
munity furnishes  as  good  an  example  as  any  other.  Some 
students  manage  to  get  through  college  on  one-half  or 
one-third  the  amount  of  money  others  require,  and  seem 
to  have  as  much  to  show  for  it  in  the  end,  often  even 
more.  Few  college  students  know  how  to  spend  money 
wisely,  especially  if  they  can  get  an  ample  supply  from 
home  and  do  not  have  to  worry  about  earning  it. 

Family  Budgets. — Several  different  methods  of  inves- 
tigating family  expenditures  have  been  adopted  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  success.  Some  of  these  are : 

1.  The  Le  Play  Method,  originated  by  a  French  sociologist 
who  would  go  to  the  community  to  be  studied  and.  live 
with  a  family  which  he  had  selected  as  a  representative 
family.     While  living  there,  by  means  of  questioning  the 
family  and  the  neighbors,  he  would  find  out  what  the 
family  spent  as  nearly  as  he  was  able;  learn  what  each 
article  of  furniture,  each  purchase  of  food,  clothing,  or 
fuel  cost;  what  was  spent  for  amusements,  tobacco,  in- 
toxicants, and  sundries.    Usually  it  would  take  him  a  month 
to  learn  all  these  matters.    While  intensive  and  thorough, 
such  a  method  might  not  be  reliable,  for  the  family  might 
not  be  a  representative  one  and  the  answers  given  might 
not  be  correct.    It  also  requires  a  great  deal  of  time. 

2.  The  Biicher  Method. — Biicher,  a  German  sociologist, 
adopted   the  method   of   asking   a   few   carefully   chosen 
families  to  keep  an  account  of  their  expenditures  for  a 
period  of  time.     Then  these  would  be  taken  and  averaged 
and  analyzed  in  detail  in  some  way.    One  objection  to  such 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          239 

a  system  is  that  such  families  selected,  or  in  fact  all  families 
able  to  keep  accurate  accounts,  might  not  be  typical. 

3.  The  University  of  Chicago  Plan. — What  is  known  as 
the  University  of  Chicago  plan  has  been  used  in  the  stock- 
yards district  of  Chicago.  This  is  an  intensive  system, 
going  into  details.  It  tries  to  find  out  exactly  what  is 
spent  for  each  article  of  food  and  clothing  and,  in  fact, 
every  purchase  of  the  family,  classifying  under  different 
headings  the  cost  of  the  clothes  for  each  member  of  the 
family,  the  amount  and  cost  of  meat  eaten,  the  amount 
spent  on  car-fare,  amusements,  cooking  utensils,  etc.  It, 
of  course,  requires  the  services  of  a  trained  investigator. 
Through  the  co-operation  of  the  University  of  Chicago 
Settlement,  this  plan  has  been  very  successfully  used  in 
Chicago.  One  hundred  typical  families  were  selected  at 
one  time  for  study ;  they  were  asked  to  keep  their  accounts 
in  a  certain  way  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  and  because 
of  their  respect  for  the  settlement,  and  for  Miss  McDowell, 
the  head  of  that  settlement,  they  were  generally  willing 
to  do  this.  Under  favorable  conditions  where  the  co- 
operation of  the  families  can  be  obtained  and  trained 
investigators  are  used,  this  plan  is  very  successful.  The 
United  States  Government  employs  a  method  very  similar 
to  this,  only  more  extensive  and  less  intensive.  Such 
budgets  are  necessary  if  we  are  to  ascertain  anything 
definite  in  regard  to  a  standard  of  living. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  necessities  which  must  be 
provided  for  in  the  budget  of  every  family  maintaining 
a  proper  standard : 

I.  Physical  Needs. 

1.  Food  sufficient  in  quality  and  quantity  to  keep 

up  efficiency. 

2.  Clothes  sufficient  to  provide  warmth,  decency, 

and  the  degree  of  style  required  to  enable 
one  to  hold  one's  place  in  the  group. 

3.  Rent  funds  to  provide  for  a  house  of  adequate 

space  to  allow  separation  of  the  sexes,  pure 


240          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

air,  ventilation,  and  a  location  satisfactory; 
as  to  drainage,  sanitation,  and  healthful  en- 
vironment. 

4.  Fuel  to  supply  proper  warmth. 

5.  Light  for  reading  purposes. 

6.  Medical  attention,  including  that  of  dentist 

and  oculist  if  necessary — not  only  for  treat- 
ment of  sickness  but  for  prevention.  As 
health  improves  the  amount  needed  for  this 
purpose  decreases. 

7.  Recreation,  variable  in  amount  and  kind,  but 

sufficient  to  provide  proper  relaxation. 

8.  Insurance  funds,  not  as  a  luxury  but  as  a  neces- 

sity. Provision  must  here  be  made  for  sick- 
ness, accident,  and  unemployment.  There 
are  two  methods  of  providing  this — by  sav- 
ings banks  and  insurance  policies. 

II.  Culture  Needs,  Sufficient  to  Fit  for  Life. 

1.  Education,   at   least   for   every   child   during 

school  age. 

2.  Technical  education,  to  teach  necessary  trade 

or  profession. 

3.  Adult  culture,  to  permit  keeping  a  proper  posi- 

tion in  one's  social  and  intellectual  life. 

Few  people  before  marriage  consider  the  importance 
of  budgets;  possibly  it  is  for  the  best,  for  if  the  problem 
of  living  were  investigated  many  would  not  marry.  But 
if  it  were  considered  more,  there  would  be  less  poverty 
and  misery  to  deal  with,  also  less  divorce.  Of  course  the 
people  who  should  consider  it  the  most  never  do,  and  the 
ones  who  would  get  along  satisfactorily  anyway  are  the 
ones  who  give  it  the  most  careful  consideration.  But  that 
condition  is  true  of  every  phase  of  life;  those  who  need 
warnings  never  heed  them. 

In  1914,  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal  gave  the  following 
interesting  set  of  family  budgets  for  a  family  consisting 
of  husband,  wife,  and  two  children  under  ten  years  of  age : 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family  241 


Six  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  A  YEAR 

Bent  at  $9.00  a  month $108.00 

Heat   50.00 

Food,  kerosene  and  laundry  supplies 286.00 

Clothes 94.50 

Savings   and    insurance 20.00 

Developmental    20.00 

Incidentals    .             21.50 


$600.00 
NINE  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  A  YEAR 

Eent  at  $15.00  a  month $180.00 

Heat   65.00 

Light  at  $1.00  a  month 12.00 

Food  and  laundry  supplies  at  $6.50  a  week 338.00 

Clothes 150.00 

Savings   and   insurance 75.00 

Developmental    50.00 

Incidentals    .                     30.00 


$900.00 
TWELVE  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  A  YEAR 

Eent  at  $20.00  a  month $240.00 

Heat  75.00 

Light  at  $1.50  a  month 18.00 

Food  and  laundry  supplies  at  $7.00  a  week 364.00 

Clothes  225.00 

Savings  and  insurance 125.00 

Developmental 100.00 

Incidentals    ...  53.00 


$1200.00 
FIFTEEN  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  A  YEAR 

Eent  at  $22  a  month $264.00 

Heat    80.00 

Light  at  $1.75  a  month 21.00 

Food  and  laundry  supplies  at  $8.00  a  week 416.00 

Clothes    250.00 

Savings  and  insurance 200.00 

Developmental    150.00 

Incidentals    119.00 

$1500.00 


242          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 


EIGHTEEN  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  A  YEAR 

Eent  at  $25  a  month $300.00 

Heat   85.00 

Light  at  $1.75  a  month 21.00 

Food  and  laundry  supplies  at  $9.00  a  week 468.00 

Clothes 300.00 

Savings  and  insurance 250.00 

Developmental    200.00 

Incidentals    176.00 


$1800.00 


TWENTY-FOUR  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  A  YEAR 

Eent  at  $30  a  month $360.00 

Heat    85.00 

Light  at  $2.00  a  month 24.00 

Food  and  laundry  supplies  at  $9.00  a  week 468.00 

Clothes 400.00 

Savings  and  insurance 400.00 

Developmental   300.00 

Incidentals    .  363.00 


$2400.00 

One  fault  with  such  a  budget  is  that  the  man  with  the 
$600  or  $900  income  generally  has  more  than  two  children. 
Also  before  the  war  too  many  families  did  not  have 
an  income  of  $600.  These  budgets  show,  besides,  more 
what  expenditures  ought  to  be  than  what  they  are. 
Few  families  have  the  ability  to  adjust  their  expenses 
in  such  a  scientific  manner.  The  preceding  table  has  been 
given,  not  for  its  scientific  value,  but  for  its  suggestive- 
ness  and  possible  usefulness  to  the  student.  The  increase 
in  prices  owing  to  the  war  has  upset,  at  least  temporarily, 
the  validity,  of  these  budgets,  because  prices  of  all  com- 
modities did  not  go  up  in  the  same  proportion.  While 
the  Bureau  of  Labor  statistics  show  that  the  average  price 
of  all  commodities  rose  138  per  cent  from  1913  to  Decem- 
ber, 1919,  the  different  items  varied,  food  rising  134  per 
cent,  clothing  (wholesale)  235  per  cent,  lumber  and  build- 
ing materials  153  per  cent,  house  furnishings  203  per  cent, 
and  farm  products  144  per  cent.  Even  with  food  there 
was  a  great  variance,  meat  rising  from  50  per  cent  to 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family  243 

80  per  cent,  butter  104  per  cent,  eggs  161  per  cent,  lard 
121  per  cent,  flour  133  per  cent,  bread  179  per  cent,  rice 
103  per  cent,  potatoes  153  per  cent,  coffee,  tea,  and  sugar 
64  per  cent,  27  per  cent,  and  164  per  cent  respectively. 
While  prices  have  dropped  they  have  not  all  declined 
in  the  same  ratio,  and  the  proportions  in  a  budget  for  to-day 
would  vary  considerably  from  the  budget  of  1913.  In  all 
probability  prices  which  went  up  the  highest  will  resume 
something  like  their  normal  level,  and  although  prices  will 
undoubtedly  be  higher  after  we  settle  down  to  normal 
conditions  again  than  they  were  before  the  war,  their 
relative  proportions  will  remain  about  the  same.  So  our 
chief  criticism  is  that  the  $600  income  is  out  of  date. 
Budgets  will  need  to  be  worked  out  for  a  larger  income 
than  $2400,  as  $3000,  for  illustration,  may  be  a  fairly 
common  income  in  the  future. 

Engel's  Laws. — In  this  connection  Engel's  laws  in  re- 
gard to  family  expenses  are  of  interest.  These  have  stood 
the  test  of  time  and  are  without  question  true  in  the  long 
run.  They  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  poorer  the  family,  the  larger  is  the  proportion 
of  the  income  spent  for  food. 

2.  The  expenditure  for  clothing  remains  about  the  same 
in  proportion,  whatever  the  income  is.     The  American 
tendency  is  to  increase  the  proportion  spent  for  clothing 
as  the  income  grows. 

3.  The  percentage  of  expenditure  for  rent,  fuel,  and 
light  also  remains  about  the  same,  regardless  of  income. 
(Schwabe  maintains  that  the  percentage  of  rent  decreases 
with  the  increase  in  income.)     The  American  tendency  is 
to  decrease  the  proportion  spent  for  rent. 

4.  As  the  income  increases,  the  percentage  spent  for 
sundries  increases. 

On  the  whole,  an  increase  in  the  rent  paid  denotes  an 
increase  in  income,  for  one  of  the  first  things  demanded 
is  a  larger  and  more  desirable  house.  Yet  the  poor,  as 
we  shall  see  in  our  study  of  poverty,  pay  more  rent  in 
proportion  to  the  space  they  occupy.  Shelter  is  absolutely 
essential,  and  when  the  amount  of  house  room  is  increased 


244          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

beyond  the  minimum  required  for  shelter,  the  marginal 
utility  begins  to  diminish. 

Infant  Mortality. — Another  family  problem  which  is 
'  much  less  serious  in  the  United  States  than  in  most  coun- 
tries is  that  of  a  high  infant  mortality.  In  past  times  this 
was  very  serious,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  children 
born  surviving  infancy.  Even  in  early  colonial  times  in 
this  country  this  was  the  condition.  It  is  also  the  state 
of  affairs  in  many  nations  to-day,  even  in  such  countries 
as  Italy,  Austria,  Spain,  and  Kussia  in  normal  times. 
During  and  since  the  war  infant  mortality  reached  hor- 
rible proportions,  children  dying  in  the  devastated  areas 
by  the  millions.  Countries  having  low  standards  of  living 
generally  have  high  infant  death-rates.  This  high  death- 
rate  among  children  is  compensated  for  by  a  high  birth- 
rate. But  such  a  condition  is  deplorable  as  it  holds  the 
population  upon  a  lower  plane  of  civilization.  Having 
a  few  children  and  rearing  them  to  manhood  and  woman- 
hood is  preferable  to  giving  birth  to  a  large  family  and 
saving  but  a  few  of  them.  Investigations  in  American 
cities  show  that  infant  death  rates  are  in  inverse  ratio 
to  incomes;  those  with  good  incomes  lose  few  children, 
while  those  with  smaller  incomes  lose  more,  and  those 
with  incomes  below  the  minimum  standard  of  existence 
have  an  extremely  high  infant  death-rate.  Some  of  the 
causes  of  infant  deaths  are  the  following: 

1.  Heat — This  is  a  condition  hard  to  regulate,  but  its 

effects  can  be  moderated. 

2.  Artificial  Feeding — Chances  of  death  are  five  or  six 

times  as  great  with  artificially  fed  babies  as  with 
breast-fed  babies. 

3.  Flies,  which  carry  disease  germs  to  the  child,  es- 

pecially through  its  food.  Modern  campaigns  of 
"swatting  the  fly,"  and,  still  more  important,  the 
removal  of  the  breeding  places  of  the  fly,  such  as 
garbage  cans,  dump  heaps,  and  waste  and  rub- 
bish in  general,  are  helping  to  rid  the  country  of 
this  pest. 


Problems  of  the  Modern  Family          245 

4.  Ignorance  and  uncleanliness  in  the  preparation  of 

artificial  foods. 

5.  Prenatal    conditions,    such    as    those    arising    from 

syphilis,  gonorrhea,  lead  poisoning,  alcoholism,  and 
overwork. 

6.  The  entrance  of  women  into  industry,  producing  a 

shorter  time  for  rest  before  and  after  childbirth, 
and  neglect  of  the  child  after  birth. 

7.  Ignorance  and  carelessness  of  midwives  and  attend- 

ants, thus  allowing  infection  and  blood-poisoning. 

8.  Patent  medicines. 

Infant  mortality  can  be  and  is  being  reduced  by  the 
elimination  of  the  conditions  which  cause  it,  by  work 
done  by  visiting  nurses,  and  by  the  increase  of  general 
education  in  regard  to  the  care  of  the  children.  Medical 
science  is  constantly  discovering  more  causes  of  children's 
diseases  and  finding  cures  for  the  diseases.  On  the  whole 
this  is  a  problem  with  which  we  in  the  United  States  are 
grappling  with  increasing  success.  The  1920  census  shows 
the  greatest  decline  among  all  age  groups,  that  of  infants 
under  one  year  of  age  declining  from  13  per  cent  in  1910 
to  9.66  per  cent  in  1920. 

While  this  progress  certainly  is  splendid,  we  are  still  ex- 
celled by  Switzerland,  under  8  per  cent;  Sweden,  a  trifle 
over  7.5  per  cent ;  Denmark,  under  7.5  per  cent ;  Norway,  6 
per  cent;  Australia,  under  6  per  cent,  and  New  Zealand, 
which  is  apparently  the  world's  safest  place  in  which  to  be 
born,  4.5  per  cent. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  there  are  other  problems  of 
the  family,  but  we  have  tried  to  discuss  the  most  sig- 
nificant. 


READING  REFERENCES 

GOODSELL,  WILLYSTINE,  The  Family  as  a  Social  and  Educational 

Institution,  Chaps.  XIII  and  XIV. 
HOWARD,  GEORGE  E.,  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions,  Vols. 

II  and  III. 


246          Problems  of  the  Modern  Family 

ADLER,  FELIX,  Marriage  and  Divorce. 

LICHTENBERGER,  JAMES  P.,  Divorce :  A  Study  of  Social  Causation. 

WILLCOX,  W.  F.,  The  Divorce  Problem:  A  Study  in  Statistics. 

SALEEBY,  C.  W.,  Parenthood  and  Race  Culture. 

BUREAU  OP  STANDARDS,  Report  on  the  Cost  of  Living  for  an  Un- 
skilled Laborer's  Family  in  New  York  City. 

BUREAU  OF  APPLIED  ECONOMICS  IN  WASHINGTON,  Standards  of 
Living,  a  Compilation  of  Budgetary  Studies. 

INDUSTRIAL  COMMISSION  OP  OHIO,  Cost  of  Living  of  Working 
Women  in  Ohio. 

STREIGHTOPF,  FRANK  EL,  The  Standard  of  Living. 

COOLEY,  CHARLES  H.,  Social  Organization^  Chap.  XXXI. 

RYAN,  JOHN  A.,  A  Living  Wage. 

NEARING,  SCOTT,  Wages  in  the  United  States. 

WRIGHT,  CARROLL  D.,  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology,  Part  IV, 
Questions  of  the  Family. 

MANGOLD,  GEORGE  B.,  Problems  of  Child  Welfare. 

DENSMORE,  EMMET,  Sex  Equality. 

DEALEY,  JAMES  Q.,  The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects. 

KEY,  ELLEN,  Love  and  Marriage  (somewhat  radical). 

BRECKINRIDGE,  S.  P.,  AND  ABBOTT,  EDITH,  The  Delinquent  Child 
and  the  Home. 

WOLFE,  A.  B.,  Readings  in  Social  Problems. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SOCIAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

Social  achievement  is  a  phase  of  sociology  which,  as  a 
rule,  is  either  completely  ignored  or  over-emphasized. 
Professor  Ward  treated  sociology  as  the  study  of  human 
achievement  and  limited  the  scope  of  the  science  to  that 
field,  taking  up  the  various  institutions  and  showing  their 
development.  Other  sociologists,  on  the  other  hand,  ignore 
the  development  of  society  almost  entirely  arid  devote 
their  efforts  to  analyzing  present-day  society.  In  this 
work  we  shall  treat  the  evolution  of  society,  including 
the  origin  and  development  of  social  institutions  as  an 
important  division  of  sociology.  For,  in  order  to  under- 
stand present  society,  we  must  study  the  stages  through 
which  social  institutions  have  passed.  In  our  study  of 
the  family  we  found  it  profitable  to  review  the  history 
of  the  family  before  we  took  up  the  problems  facing  the 
family  to-day.  We  treated  the  family  as  an  institution 
first,  because  it  was  prior  to  all  others  and  because  its 
evolution  has  influenced  all  other  phases  of  social  develop- 
ment. 

Stages  of  Social  Evolution. — There  have  been  many  at- 
tempts to  divide  the  progress  of  the  world  into  stages 
and  to  classify  the  different  peoples  of  the  earth  accord- 
ing to  such  a  system.  The  most  popular  of  these  systems 
has  been  that  which  divides  the  past  into  the  stone  age, 
bronze  age,  and  iron  age,  according  to  the  materials  used 
in  the  making  of  utensils  and  weapons.  This  classification 
is,  of  course,  far  too  indefinite;  it  is  also  too  rigid,  and 
employs  insufficient  methods  of  comparison.  Another 
classification  often  used,  and  one  which  is  quite  suggestive, 
is  the  following : 

1.  Hunting  and  fishing  stage,  when  man  lived  by  the 

247 


248  Social  Achievement 

direct  appropriation  of  wild  animal  food.  (Yet  there  must 
have  been  a  time  before  man  had  even  learned  to  hunt 
or  fish.) 

2.  Pastoral  stage,  when  man  lived  from  his  flocks  and 
herds,  which  he  had  learned  to  domesticate. 

3.  Agricultural  stage,  after  man  had  acquired  the  ability 
to  till  the  soil,  and  was  thus  able  to  add  the  fruits  of 
cultivation  to  natural  resources. 

4.  Commercial  stage,  after  exchange  and  commerce  had 
been  developed. 

5.  Industrial  stage,  coming  with  the  invention  of  ma- 
chinery. 

6.  Intellectual  stage,  less  carefully  defined. 

Such  a  classification  is  by  no  means  bad;  yet  it  allows 
no  time  limits  and  cannot  be  followed  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy.  Often  there  have  existed  groups  in  which 
the  women  became  agriculturalists  while  the  men  of  the 
tribe  still  hunted  and  fished,  as  was  the  case  with  most 
of  the  American  Indians.  Then  again  the  women  may 
have  continued  to  be  agriculturalists  while  the  men  en- 
gaged in  trading.  Moreover,  quite  often  some  of  these 
stages  have  been  skipped  entirely,  such  as  pastoral  life 
because  of  the  lack  of  animals  suitable  for  domestication, 
and  agricultural  life  because  of  the  lack  of  fertile  soil, 
as  found  in  Arabia  and  the  region  of  the  Sahara.  So 
it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  each  race  has  passed 
through  all  these  evolutionary  stages. 

Probably  the  best  single  classification  so  far  attempted 
is  that  suggested  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  which  is  as  fol- 
lows r1 

I.  Status  of  Savagery. 

1.  Lower  period,  beginning  with  the  infancy  of 

the  human  race.  During  this  period  ar- 
ticulate speech  began  and  man  lived  on 
fruits  and  nuts.  No  races  have  been  found 
in  the  process  of  passing  through  this  period. 

2.  Middle  period,  which  began  with  subsistence 
1  Ancient  Society,  pp.  9-13. 


Social  Achievement  #49 

on  fish  and  the  use  of  fire,  during  which 
time  man  spread  over  the  entire  world.  The 
Australians  and  Polynesians  when  discov- 
ered represented  this  period. 
3.  Upper  period,  beginning  with  the  use  of  the 
bow  and  arrow  and  ending  with  the  employ- 
ment of  the  art  of  pottery ;  this  art  Morgan 
believes  to  be  the  dividing  line  between 
savagery  and  barbarism.  A  few  of  the  In- 
dian tribes  of  North  and  South  America 
represent  this  period,  especially  those  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  and  Columbia  River  regions. 

II.  Status  of  Barbarism. 

1.  Lower  period,  which  began  with  the  use  of  the 

art  of  pottery,  and  included  most  of  the 
Indian  tribes  east  of  the  Missouri  River. 

2.  Middle  period,  beginning  with  the  domestication 

of  animals  in  the  Old  World  and  agriculture 
in  the  New,  and  included  the  village  Indians 
of  New  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  Peru. 

3.  Upper  period,  beginning  with  the  smelting  of 

iron  ore  and  ending  with  the  use  of  the 
phonetic  alphabet,  the  invention  of  which 
marked  the  dividing  line  between  barbarism 
and  civilization.  This  included,  according 
to  Morgan,  the  Grecian  tribes  of  the  Homeric 
Age,  the  Italian  tribes  before  the  founding 
of  Rome,  and  the  Germanic  tribes  of  the 
time  of  Caesar. 

III.  Status  of  Civilization,  dating  from  the  invention  of 

a  phonetic  alphabet,  and  extending  to  the  present 
and  on  into  the  future. 

If  we  make  no  attempt  to  assign  any  dates  to  these 
different  periods  we  may  find  this  classification  very  useful. 
It  is  by  no  means  arbitrary  and  many  exceptions  may 
be  allowed.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  a  tribe 
is  savage  or  barbarian  simply  upon  the  test  of  using 


250  Social  Achievement 

pottery,  for  a  tribe  may  have  no  clay  with  which  to  make 
the  pottery,  while  other  tribes  far  less  advanced  may 
have  an  abundance  of  clay.  The  bow  and  arrow  is  just 
as  faulty  as  a  criterion,  for  the  necessity  or  incentive  may; 
be  entirely  absent;  the  given  tribe  may  live  on  the  sea- 
shore and  use  fish  for  food,  and  therefore  have  no  reason 
or  opportunity  to  hunt,  while  another  tribe  may  be  com- 
pelled to  invent  some  method  of  obtaining  game.  Strict 
classification  according  to  this  standard  would  put  many 
backward  tribes  above  others  that  are  really  far  more 
advanced  in  culture.  In  fact  we  must  consider  the  in- 
fluences of  environment,  such  as  the  effect  that  grazing 
land  would  have  in  prolonging  the  pastoral  life ;  the  effect 
of  fertility  of  soil  in  hastening  or  prolonging  agriculture ;' 
and  the  effect  of  presence  or  absence  of  metals  in  metal 
working,  before  we  make  any  attempt  to  classify  accord- 
ing to  any  such  criteria.  The  domestication  of  animals 
will  allow  a  denser  population  than  hunting  and  will  lead 
to  agriculture  in  many  cases,  thus  permitting  still  denser 
population,  and  hastening  commerce  and  trade.  On  the 
other  hand  it  may  discourage  agriculture.  In  short  it  is 
very  difficult  to  attempt  to  fix  any  hard-and-fast  classifica- 
tion of  the  stages  of  social  evolution.  At  best  any  such 
classification  must  be  used  only  as  an  aid  in  our  study; 
it  must  never  be  taken  as  an  arbitrary  rule. 

Morgan2  gives  also  a  very  interesting  classification  of 
the  means  of  subsistence,  showing  successive  changes  in 
man's  control  over  his  food  supply  and  thus  indicating 
to  a  large  extent  his  progress;  for  each  advance  in  this 
direction  gave  him  more  time  for  intellectual  develop- 
ment as  well  as  a  more  stable  and  varied  diet,  thus  not 
only  affording  protection  against  hunger  and  starvation 
but  also  allowing  a  chance  for  progress.  Morgan's  clas- 
sification is  as  follows: 

1.  Direct  appropriation  of  the  gifts  of  nature,  when  man 
lived  upon  what  he  was  able  to  gather  in  the  way 
of  fruits,  nuts,  and  roots. 

2  Ancient  Society,  Chap.  II,  pp.  19-28. 


Social  Achievement 

2.  Fish  subsistence,  which  preceded  hunting  because  the 

weapons  of  man  were  crude  and  ineffective  against 
wild  animals,  and  fish  were  easier  to  catch.  This 
diet  was  later  supplemented  by  meat  obtained 
from  hunting.  This  period  sometimes  was  skipped 
because  of  geographic  conditions. 

3.  Farinaceous  diet,  first  composed  of  grains,  gathered 

wild  and  later  cultivated,  then  supplemented  by 
vegetables. 

4.  Meat  and  milk  diet  obtained  from  domestic  animals, 

particularly  the  cow,  llama,  camel,  horse,  goat, 
sheep,  and  reindeer. 

5.  Unlimited  subsistence  through  field  culture  and  the 

constant  addition  of  new  vegetables,  grains,  and 
fruits,  such  as  the  potato  and  maize. 

There  is  no  abrupt  change  from  one  stage  to  another; 
there  are  merely  additions  to  the  supply  previously 
known,  thus  adding  gradually  to  achievement  and  human 
happiness. 

The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man. — The  question  constantly 
presenting  itself  to  the  student  of  social  evolution  is,  what 
kind  of  a  being  was  primitive  man?  As  to  his  body  we 
have  very  little  exact  knowledge,  for  the  fossil  skeletons 
left  by  him  are  fragmentary,  seldom  amounting  to  more 
than  one  or  two  bones.  But  from  these,  by  the  use  of 
our  imagination,  supported  by  history  and  tradition,  we 
may  regard  him  essentially  as  he  is  to-day,  differing 
physically  according  to  climatic  and  environmental  con- 
ditions which  greatly  influenced  his  manner  of  life  along 
lines  suggested  in  Chapters  II  and  III.  But  what  in- 
terests us  still  more  in  sociology  is  the  kind  of  mind 
this  primitive  man  had.  Was  his  mind  half  human 
or  was  it  equal  or  nearly  equal,  as  far  as  mental  capacity 
is  concerned,  to  that  of  man  to-day?  Fortunately  we 
have  more  evidence  upon  which  to  compare  the  mind  of 
primitive  man  with  the  mind  of  modern  man  than  we 
have  with  which  to  compare  the  body,  for  we  have  the 
institutions  started  by  him  and  some  of  his  inventions, 


Social  Achievement 

for  he  left  remains  of  his  implements,  his  weapons, 
his  decorations.  It  is  the  generally  accepted  opir>non 
among  anthropologists,  formed  on  the  basis  of  this  evi- 
dence, that  primitive  man  had  approximately  the  same 
mental  equipment  as  present-day  man;  that  he  utilized 
approximately  the  same  mental  capacity  in  meeting  his 
difficulties  and  solving  his  problems  as  present-day  man. 

In  connection  with  this  problem  arises  the  question, 
why  is  it  that  some  races  to-day  are  more  advanced  than 
others'?  Also,  why  have  some  races  progressed  and  others 
have  not?  The  answer  is  that  some  races  have  achieved 
more  than  others,  not  because  they  were  more  gifted  men- 
tally, but  because  they  were  more  favorably  situated 
geographically,  came  into  contact  with  more  stimuli,  and 
so  advanced  more  rapidly.  With  this  in  mind  we  cannot 
claim  mental  superiority  for  the  white  race  on  the  ground 
of  greater  achievement.  Geography  and  history  are  the 
causes  of  the  superiority  or  domination  of  the  European 
races,  rather  than  innate  mental  capacity. 

Primitive  races  are  criticized  for  their  lack  of  self-con- 
trol, but  if  we  examine  the  matter  carefully  we  find  that 
primitive  man  exercises  control  upon  occasions  when  he 
deems  control  necessary,  such  as  physical  control  under 
pain  and  torture,  and  endurance  of  hunger,  thirst,  and 
other  discomfort.  It  is  also  asserted  that  primitive  man 
is  lacking  in  the  ability  to  concentrate  his  attention,  but 
this  statement  is  controverted  when  we  find  that  what 
civilized  man  considers  as  worthy  of  attention  primitive 
man  does  not;  and  that  the  latter  shows  equal  ability 
to  concentrate  upon  those  things  which  he  considers  of 
importance,  such  as  the  perfecting  of  some  weapon  with 
which  to  hunt,  or  the  watching  of  habits  of  the  animals 
which  he  hunts.  Primitive  man  has  also  been  criticized 
because  of  his  lack  of  abstract  ideas,  but  since  he  has 
no  special  need  for  them  he  fails  to  develop  them,  while 
civilized  man  has  such  a  need. 

"It  is  not  impossible  that  the  degree  of  development 
of  these  functions  may  differ  somewhat  among  different 


Social  Achievement  253 

t;  pes  of  man ;  but  I  do  not  believe  that  we  are  able  at 
t'  e  present  time  to  form  a  just  valuation  of  the 
hereditary  mental  powers  of  the  different  races.  A 
comparison  of  their  languages,  customs,  and  activities 
suggests  that  their  faculties  may  be  unequally  devel- 
oped, but  the  differences  are  not  sufficient  to  justify 
us  to  ascribe  materially  lower  stages  to  some  peoples 
and  higher  stages  to  others.  The  conclusions  reached 
from  these  considerations  are  therefore,  on  the  whole, 
negative.  We  are  not  inclined  to  consider  the  mental 
organization  of  different  races  of  man  as  differing  in 
fundamental  points.  Although,  therefore,  the  distribu- 
tion of  faculty  among  the  races  of  man  is  far  from 
being  known,  we  can  say  this  much :  the  average  faculty 
of  the  white  race  is  found  in  the  same  degree  in  a  large 
portion  of  the  individuals  of  all  the  other  races,  and, 
although,  it  is  probable  that  some  of  these  races  may 
not  produce  as  large  a  proportion  of  great  men  as  our 
own  race,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  they  are 
unable  to  reach  the  level  of  civilization  represented  by 
the  bulk  of  our  own  people."  3 

"  Uniform  development  of  culture  among  all  the  dif- 
ferent races  of  man  and  among  all  the  tribal  units  is 
true  in  a  limited  sense  only.  .  .  .  The  assumption  that, 
the  same  forms  must  necessarily  develop  in  every  inde- 
pendent social  unit  can  hardly  be  maintained.  .  .  . 
Whether  the  representatives  of  different  races  can  be 
proved  to  have  developed  each  independently,  in  such 
a  way  that  the  representatives  of  some  races  stand  on 
low  levels  of  culture,  while  others  stand  on  high  levels, 
may  be  answered  in  the  negative.  If  one  should  make 
an  attempt  to  arrange  the  different  types  of  man  in 
accordance  with  their  industrial  development  we  should 
find  representatives  of  most  diverse  races — such  as  the 
Bushmen  of  South  Africa,  the  Veddah  of  Ceylon,  the 
Australian,  and  the  Indian  of  Tierra  del  Fuego — on  the 
same  lowest  level.  We  should  also  find  representatives 
*Boas,  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  pp.  122-123. 


254  Social  Achievement 

of  different  races  on  more  advanced  levels,  like  the 
negroes  of  Central  Africa,  the  Indians  of  the  South- 
western Pueblos,  and  the  Polynesians;  and  in  our 
present  period  we  may  find  representatives  of  the  most 
diverse  races  taking  part  in  the  highest  types  of  civiliza- 
tion. Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  no  close  relation 
between  race  and  culture. ' '  4 

On  the  whole  we  must  accept  the  conclusion  that  the 
training  of  the  mind,  like  the  development  of  inventions, 
is  largely  a  product  of  necessity,  and  that  the  savage  is 
as  intellectual  as  his  environment  compels  him  to  be.  The 
following  quotation  sums  up  very  nicely  our  general  con- 
clusion in  regard  to  comparative  mental  development: 

"The  directions  of  mental  attention  and»the  simplicity 
or  complexity  of  mental  processes  depend  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  external  situation  which  the  mind  has  to 
manipulate.  If  the  activities  are  simple,  the  mind  is 
simple,  and  if  the  activities  are  nil,  the  mind  would 
be  nil.  The  mind  is  nothing  but  a  means  of  manipu- 
lating the  outside  world.  Number,  time  and  space  con- 
ceptions and  systems  become  more  complex  and  accurate, 
not  as  the  human  mind  grows  in  capacity  but  as  ac- 
tivities become  more  varied  and  call  for  more  extended 
and  accurate  systems  of  notation  and  measurement. ' ' 5 

Progress  has  been  the  result  of  environment  and  ex- 
perience ;  the  accumulation  of  knowledge  and  the  piling 
up  of  achievement.  Some  peoples  have  come  into  contact 
with  more  varied  conditions  than  others  and  hence  have 
progressed  faster.  Improvements  in  the  way  of  preserv- 
ing and  passing  on  knowledge  and  achievement,  such  as 
the  inventions  of  alphabet,  printing,  and  means  of  com- 
munication, have  enabled  man  to  progress  more  and  more 
rapidly.  This  conclusion  in  regard  to  mental  capacity 
is  applicable  to  races  and  not  to  individuals  in  those  races. 

4  Boas,  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  pp.  195-196. 

s  Thomas,  Mind  of  the  Savage,  in  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins, 
p.  163. 


Social  Achievement  255 

The  Development  of  Language. — Language  is  an  ac- 
quired characteristic,  one  which  has  to  be  learned  by 
each  individual.  It  was  among  the  earliest  of  human 
institutions.  By  language  we  mean  the  power  of  rational 
communication  in  all  its  forms,  whether  oral,  written, 
sign,  or  gesture ;  it  is  much  broader  than  oral  speech.  The 
use  of  language  is  a  distinctly  human  achievement,  re- 
quiring rational  capacity  not  possessed  by  animals. 
Language  is  the  result  of  the  struggle  of  men  to  under- 
stand each  other.  It  is  a  product  of  the  mind,  yet  it  aids 
in  the  development  of  the  mind ;  it  is  the  result  of  thought ; 
it  is  the  attempt  to  express  that  thought;  moreover 
language  stimulates  thought  and  thus  leads  to  greater 
achievement.  Language  and  social  consciousness  go  to- 
gether. 

The  language  (so-called)  of  animals  is  chiefly  one  of 
interjections;  that  of  early  man  was  much  the  same,  con- 
sisting of  ejaculatory  cries  expressing  the  emotions,  such 
as  joy,  hate,  surprise,  fear,  love,  or  satisfaction.  This 
is  not  language,  however,  as  we  consider  the  term  to-day, 
for  it  did  not  express  thought  but  merely  indicated  emo- 
tion. After  the  interjection  the  noun  was  the  next  part 
of  speech  invented;  it  came  as  a  result  of  the  effort  of 
man  to  name  objects.  Generally  these  names  were  sug- 
gested by  some  characteristic  of  the  object,  but  not  neces- 
sarily so.  Often  different  persons  in  widely  separated 
times  or  places  would  be  impressed  by  different  features 
of  the  same  object,  and  there  would  result  a  difference 
in  names.  Sometimes  there  was  no  obvious  connection 
between  the  object  and  the  name,  the  name  being  merely 
a  result  of  an  effort  to  distinguish  the  object.  After 
nouns  verbs  came  in,  expressing  action;  then  later  came 
words  corresponding  to  the  other  parts  of  speech  as  we 
now  know  them.  Spoken  language  developed  gradually, 
but  proceeded  in  all  probability  with  greater  rapidity  as 
soon  as  a  start  was  made.  As  man  began  to  adopt  a 
more  or  less  settled  place  of  abode  and  thus  came  to 
associate  more  constantly  with  his  fellow-men,  greater 
need  of  better  means  of  communication  became  evident; 


256  Social  Achievement 

and  as  a  result  of  this  need,  language  assumed  by  degrees 
a  more  definite  form,  and  man's  vocabulary  gradually 
grew  larger. 

Communication  with  those  present  was  not  sufficient, 
and  was  not  always  possible  even  with  spoken  language, 
for  languages  differed;  therefore,  other  means  had  to  be 
adopted — the  sign  language,  which  became  universal  and 
possibly  preceded  spoken  language.  Besides  man  found 
a  need  to  communicate  with  those  at  a  distance  both 
in  space  and  in  time,  and  so  extensions  of  language  had 
to  be  invented.  As  a  result  sign  language  by  means  of 
smoke  signals  or  drum  beats,  such  as  are  used  by  natives 
of  Africa  and  formerly  by  the  American  Indians,  came 
into  use  to  overcome  space  distances.  Written  language 
was  invented  to  enable  those  distant  in  both  time  and 
space  to  gain  information.  The  first  written  language 
took  the  form  of  reminders,  such  as  notches  cut  in  sticks, 
which  the  messengers  among  the  Australians  carry,  in 
order  not  to  forget  their  message.  The  next  step  is  pic- 
ture or  symbol  language,  pictures  of  objects  being  drawn, 
or  symbols  used  to  designate  them.  The  early  writing 
of  Egypt  took  this  form.  A  later  step  was  the  invention 
of  a  phonetic  alphabet,  where  symbols  or  letters  represent 
sounds,  like  those  in  use  to-day  by  civilized  man.  Another 
great  step  was  the  invention  of  printing — possibly  as 
great  an  aid  to  civilization  as  the  art  of  writing,  for  while 
writing  allowed  a  record  to  be  made  of  the  past,  printing 
put  that  record  within  the  reach  of  all  the  people.  Before 
writing  came  into  use,  all  history,  discoveries,  and  knowl- 
edge had  to  be  handed  down  by  word  of  mouth,  which 
involved  the  risk  of  its  being  distorted  and  lost.  Before 
printing  was  invented,  records  had  to  be  copied  laboriously 
by  hand  and  thus  were  expensive  and  brought  within  the 
reach  of  only  a  few.  Printing  made  knowledge  democratic. 
Improvements  in  printing,  which  in  the  modern  press, 
linotype  and  monotype  machines  have  reached  a  highly 
complex  stage,  have  enormously  facilitated  the  popu- 
larization of  knowledge. 

Language  is  by  no  means  perfected;  we  are  constantly 


Social  Achievement  257 

increasing  our  vocabulary  and  changing  our  forms,  both 
in  spelling  and  in  grammar.  We  are  steadily  discarding 
variations  in  our  declensions  and  conjugations  and  are 
expressing  meaning  more  through  the  use  of  modifiers. 
New  words  are  constantly  appearing,  some  being  formed 
by  combinations  of  old  words,  in  order  to  furnish  names 
for  new  objects  or  to  suggest  a  new  meaning;  some  are 
borrowed  from  other  languages  for  these  purposes — a 
method  exemplified  in  the  English  language,  which  has 
drawn  so  heavily  from  the  Latin,  Greek  and  Romance 
languages.  Then  again  new  words  are  constantly  being 
coined  outright;  many  of  these  are  at  first  rejected,  es- 
pecially "slang"  words,  but  after  a  time  some  of  them 
find  their  way  into  our  dictionaries  and  are  recognized  as 
legitimate.  New  situations  and  experiences  also  bring  in 
new  records,  as  illustrated  by  the  recent  war. 

Thus  language,  while  a  product  of  socialization,  has 
made  further  socialization  possible.  Without  it  modern 
civilization  would  be  impossible.  It  is  the  product  of 
mind,  and  at  the  same  time  acts  as  the  mind's  greatest 
stimulant.  It  is  possibly  man's  greatest  social  achieve- 
ment. 

Inventions. — A  product  of  the  mind  of  man,  one  which 
gives  an  excellent  guide  to  the  social  evolution  of  man, 
is  invention.  Here  we  have  definite  means  of  comparing 
primitive  with  civilized  man.  Inventions,  however,  are  in- 
fluenced by  the  geographic  environment,  for  they  are  the  re- 
sults of  the  efforts  of  man  to  supply  his  needs ;  they  are  the 
products  of  necessity.  Nature  serves  as  a  stimulus  in 
this  way ;  if  there  are  wild  animals  there  is  the  incentive 
for  the  invention  of  weapons,  like  the  bow  and  arrow, 
or  traps,  such  as  the  deadfall;  and  if  the  people  gain 
their  food  from  the  water,  they  turn  the  same  mental 
capacity  towards  the  inventing  of  nets,  hooks,  pounds, 
and  boats;  if  agriculture  is  the  means  of  livelihood,  the 
inventive  ability  will  be  turned  to  the  shaping  of  hoes, 
plows,  and  methods  of  irrigation;  if  food  is  scarce  in 
winter,  methods  of  preserving  will  be  invented — freez- 
ing, smoking,  drying  and  curing  of  meat  and  fish — the 


258  Social  Achievement 

drying  of  fruits,  the  storing  of  grain,  and  later  in  civiliza- 
tion the  canning  of  all  kinds  of  food ;  if  man  lives  near 
water  he  will  invent  boats,  fashioning  them  out  of  what- 
ever material  is  available,  particularly  tree  trunks,  bark 
or  skins. 

The  same  is  true  of  all  inventions;  environment  and 
necessity  have  been  the  mainsprings  of  mental  activity, 
the  former  to  suggest  and  the  latter  to  compel.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  man  obtained  the  idea  of  many  of 
his  weapons  from  the  animals  about  him,  getting  the 
pattern  of  the  spear  from  those  animals  with  horns  or 
tusks;  of  the  bow  from  the  bending  limb  or  sapling  in 
the  forest ;  of  knives,  daggers,  and  notched  weapons  from 
the  teeth  of  animals;  of  the  use  of  poisons  from  poison- 
ous insects  and  reptiles;  of  defensive  weapons,  particu- 
larly shields  and  armor,  from  the  tough  hides  of  such 
animals  as  the  rhinoceros  and  buffalo;  of  armor  in  the 
form  of  plates  or  scales  from  the  alligator.  These  were 
all  undoubtedly  suggestive,  and  the  fact  that  man  was 
physically  weaker  than  many  of  the  animals  around  him 
compelled  him  to  seek  artificial  aid.  The  club  was  pos- 
sibly the  first  invention  and  was  largely  the  result  of 
the  need  felt  by  man  to  hit  harder  and  at  a  greater 
distance  than  his  fist  would  allow.  Spears  and  slings 
were  improvements  on  the  club ;  the  bow  and  arrow  was 
another  step  in  advance,  and  it  in  turn  had  to  give  way 
to  the  gun  fired  by  gunpowder.  Combat  not  only  with 
the  animals  but  with  other  men  compelled  man  to  improve 
his  weapons.  The  tribe  or  band  which  had  the  better 
weapons  won,  and  that  having  inferior  equipment  was 
defeated.  Thus  man  was  compelled  to  adopt  the  best 
weapons  that  he  could  find;  individuals  or  groups  who 
did  not  were  exterminated.  This  was  strikingly  illus- 
trated in  the  recent  war. 

Primitive  inventions  indicated  as  great  mental  capacity 
and  genius  as  modern;  indeed  we  often  think  that  they 
were  really  greater  achievements.  The  development  of 
the  use  of  fire  was  as  great  an  achievement  as  the  dis- 
covery of  electricity  and  had  a  far  greater  effect  upon 


Social  Achievement  259 

society.  The  invention  of  the  modern  42-centimeter  gun, 
the  high-power  rifle,  and  the  machine  gun  are  no  greater 
achievements  than  was  the  construction  of  the  first  bow 
and  arrow,  of  which  they  are  merely  improvements;  the 
theory  is  the  same,  that  of  throwing  a  missile.  The  con- 
trivance of  the  alphabet  was  in  one  respect  a  greater 
achievement  than  that  of  the  modern  printing  press,  for 
the  press  could  never  have  been  possible  without  the 
alphabet.  Glassware  and  china  are  merely  the  continua- 
tion of  the  idea  which  produced  pottery.  In  short,  modern 
inventions  are  in  most  cases  merely  improvements  upon 
primitive  inventions.  Nearly  every  new  device  or  ma- 
chine produced  to-day  is  nothing  more  than  an  improve- 
ment of  some  previous  device  or  machine. 

It  is  astonishing  to  discover  how  many  of  our  modern 
tools  and  mechanical  devices  were  known  by  primitive  man, 
not  of  course  in  their  present  finished  state  but  in  a 
cruder  and  less  effective  form.  Primitive  man  had  the 
idea  and  the  method;  we  have  merely  improved  upon  the 
product.  Of  instruments  of  cutting,  primitive  man  had 
knives,  shears,  planes,  axes,  chisels,  smoothers,  scrapers, 
polishers,  and  saws.  They  were,  to  be  sure,  made  of 
stone,  bones,  shells,  teeth,  and  pieces  of  stick,  but  great 
ingenuity  was  used  in  fitting  of  handles  by  means  of 
grooves,  boring  of  holes,  riveting,  gluing,  and  lashing. 
Instruments  of  piercing  were  made,  such  as  awls,  gim- 
lets, and  needles.  Tongs,  nippers,  vises,  and  presses  were 
also  used,  and  all  kinds  of  ingenious  methods  of  tying 
knots  and  fastening  articles  together. 

Perhaps  much  greater  in  the  way  of  achievement  was 
the  employment  of  many  of  the  principles  of  mechanics 
and  the  laws  of  physics,  particularly  those  underlying 
the  use  of  the  lever,  wedge,  wheel  and  axle,  pulley,  screw, 
inclined  plane,  and  roller,  all  of  which  primitive  man 
made  use  of  in  his  every-day  life,  using  the  wedge  to 
split  trees,  the  pulley  to  haul  great  weights,  the  lever 
to  lift  heavy  bodies,  and  the  inclined  plane  to  get  a 
heavy  object  upon  a  higher  place.  Scales  and  balances 
were  also  in  common  use  with  primitive  man.  The  savage 


260  Social  Achievement 

may  never  have  understood  the  laws  governing  these 
tools,  and  in  all  probability  never  realized  that  there 
might  have  been  such  a  thing  as  a  law.  But  the  use  of 
these  devices  indicates  that  he  had  as  good  a  mind  as 
civilized  man,  even  though  not  so  well  trained.  Civil- 
ization is  the  result  of  the  accumulation  of  knowledge; 
progress  is  simply  the  piling  up  of  achievement. 

In  his  battle  with  nature  man  has  proved  superior  and 
has  subjected  nature  to  his  will.  Animals  have  been 
transformed  by  their  environment  but  man  has  proved 
himself  master  of  it.  While  he  has  been  influenced  by 
nature  he  has  never  become  her  slave;  he  has  compelled 
her  to  serve  him.  While  progress  at  first  may  have  been 
accidental,  it  eventually  became  telic,  or  purposeful. 
Man  has  never  been  willing  to  leave  well  enough  alone, 
and  has  persistently  refused  to  be  dominated  or  frustrated 
by  nature;  he  has  steadily  thrown  off.  her  bonds  and  be- 
come her  master.  Matter  and  motion  cannot  be 
destroyed  but  they  can  be  transformed  into  channels  use- 
ful to  man ;  this  transformation  is  the  result  of  new  ideas. 
Inventions  have  been  by  no  means  sudden  discoveries; 
they  are  slow  growths  or  accumulations  of  ideas.  At 
first  invention  was  extremely  slow,  but  as  man  progressed 
it  became  more  rapid;  through  the  betterment  of  means 
of  communication  the  invention  of  one  thing  caused  others 
to  spring  up.  Also  invention  and  discovery  have  been 
reciprocal,  invention  leading  to  discovery  and  discovery 
ushering  in  invention.  We  had  to  discover  the  powers  of 
steam  and  electricity  before  we  could  invent  the  steam 
engine  or  the  telegraph;  these  inventions  led  to  further 
discoveries,  which  in  turn  made  possible  other  inven- 
tions. Inventions  have  enabled  man  to  make  better  use 
of  the  gifts  of  nature.  They  have  also  acted  as  mile- 
stones of  progress,  ushering  in  periods  of  greater  accom- 
plishment. They  are  human  achievements,  made  possible 
by  man's  superior  mental  ability. 

Evolution  of  Property. — At  first  man  had  no  property, 
unless  we  can  call  unconsumed  food  property.  Since 
property,  depends  upon  invention,  probably  the  first 


Social  Achievement  261 

definite  form  of  property  was  the  club ;  to  this  was  added 
other  weapons  as  they  were  constructed.  Then  articles 
of  personal  use  came  in,  such  as  cooking  utensils,  traps, 
hooks,  nets,  and  in  fact  all  of  those  articles  which  a 
savage  would  use  to  aid  him  in  the  battle  with  nature. 
Clothes  and  articles  of  ornament  were  added  later,  for 
originally  man  wore  no  clothes.  Clothes  appeared  first 
as  ornaments  and  were  not  adopted  for  the  sake  of  mod- 
esty or  for  warmth;  both  of  these  functions  developed, 
for  after  man  grew  accustomed  to  wearing  clothes  a  sense 
of  modesty  developed  and  he  became  ashamed  to  go  with- 
out them. 

The  use  of  clothing  for  warmth  is  likewise  the  result 
of  habit.  Clothes  were  made  of  skins,  bark,  leaves,  and 
grasses  woven  together.  All  manner  of  ornaments  came 
into  use,  from  the  most  primitive  efforts  at  decoration 
down  to  the  costly  jewels  and  apparel  created  during 
later  periods  of  luxury.  With  the  appearance  of  pastoral 
life  property  in  flocks  and  herds  developed.  Also  with 
this  period,  but  more  especially  with  the  development  of 
agriculture,  land  began  to  be  held  as  property,  that  is, 
land  which  was  suitable  for  grazing  and  agricultural  pur- 
poses, land  which  was  well  watered  and  fertile  or  which 
was  near  some  water  hole.  Before  this,  land  in  the  shape 
of  some  favorite  cave  or  spot  desired  for  residential  pur- 
poses was  held  as  property,  provided  the  person  was 
strong  enough  to  hold  possession  of  it. 

Early  life  was  more  or  less  communistic;  only  the 
strongest  and  quickest  had  a  choice;  and  a  person  held 
his  own  property  by  reason  of  the  strong  arm,  or  lost  it 
to  someone  else  by  lack  of  it.  But  as  inventions  created 
property,  government  (as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chap- 
ter) slowly  developed  and  laid  down  rules  for  its  owner- 
ship, thus  acknowledging  the  right  of  private  property. 
In  fact  the  holding  of  private  property  was  one  of  the 
great  incentives  towards  government,  demanding  definite 
rules,  executives  to  enforce  them,  and  judges  to  decide 
disputes.  With  the  development  of  the  idea  of  property 
came  in  mediums  of  exchange.  At  first  articles  were 


262  Social  Achievement 

exchanged  by  means  of  barter,  where  one  person  having 
some  article  which  he  wished  to  exchange  for  others  was 
obliged  to  find  someone  having  the  desired  article  who 
was  willing  to  exchange  with  him.  This  was  too  clumsy 
a  method  and  there  slowly  arose  the  idea  of  exchanging 
for  some  article  of  universal  demand  which  could  easily 
be  given  for  the  ultimately  desired  article.  For  mediums 
of  exchange  were  used  common  articles  of  food,  such  as 
rice,  wheat,  maize,  fish,  beans,  nuts,  figs,  dates,  salt, 
cocoanuts,  tea,  coffee ;  or  some  article  of  clothing,  as  furs, 
cotton,  silk;  or  domestic  animals,  especially  cattle; 
articles  of  ornament,  as  beads,  wampum,  feathers,  or 
paint ;  slaves ;  even  '  women ;  and  finally  the  precious 
metals.  Articles  had  to  be  selected  which  all  or  many 
wanted,  which  had  some  standard  of  value,  and  which 
were  easily  transported.  Market  places  came  into  use  and 
often  were  very  highly  developed  even  among  primitive 
savages,  certain  places  being  set  aside  in  the  forest  and 
rules  laid  down  to  protect  those  going  to  and  coming  from 
them.  Barter  was  at  first  the  only  method  of  trading  at 
these  market  places,  but  advantage  was  later  taken  of 
the  prevailing  mediums  of  exchange.  The  development 
of  property  has  steadily  increased  as  civilization  has 
progressed.  Laws  have  been  made  to  protect  property, 
at  times  to  such  an  extent  that  property  is  better  pro- 
tected than  human  life  itself.  Just  now,  however,  the 
tendency  is  away  from  this. 

Evolution  of  Industry. — Property  led  to  industrial 
development.  To  develop  industry  division  of  labor  was 
necessary.  The  first  division  of  labor  was  that  between 
man  and  woman,  man  doing  the  hunting,  fishing,  trap- 
ping, herding,  and  fighting,  while  woman  cared  for  the 
children  and  did  the  cooking  and  the  work  about  the 
camp,  generally  including  agriculture.  Then  gradually 
different  men  found  out  that  they  could  do  some  one 
thing  better  than  another  and  so  did  that  one  thing, 
exchanging  their  products  for  the  products  of  others. 
Some  learned  that  they  were  especially  skilled  in  mak- 
ing bows  and  arrows  or  wampum,  or  knew  how  to  make 


Social  Achievement  263 

superior  canoes;  this  was  particularly  true  of  the  Amer- 
ican Indians.  Among  African  tribes  smithing  is  a  trade 
followed  by  some,  others  bringing  their  iron  work  to 
them.  Barter  and  exchange  made  this  specialization  pos- 
sible and  with  the  development  of  exchange  and  trade  it 
increased.  During  the  feudal  times  handicrafts  appeared, 
certain  towns  developing  certain  industries,  the  secrets  of 
which  were  handed  down  from  father  to  son.  In  coun- 
tries where  slavery  was  highly  developed  slave  labor  was 
organized  along  such  lines,  slaves  being  taught  different 
trades;  many  estates  were  highly  organized,  having  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  of  slaves  following  scores  of  occu- 
pations. Later,  guilds  sprang  up,  especially  in  the  towns 
of  Germany.  These  were  really  closed  trade  unions,  which 
kept  the  secrets  of  the  different  trades  and  limited  the 
number  of  apprentices.  With  the  rise  of  a  special 
merchant  class  and  the  decline  of  the  craft  guilds,  home 
manufacture — the  so-called  domestic  system — appeared. 
Then  with  the  invention  of  the  steam  engine,  power  loom, 
and  numerous  other  machines,  home  industry  was  driven 
to  the  wall  by  the  greater  efficiency  of  machine  industry, 
and  the  factory  age  was  ushered  in.  This  change  pro- 
duced endless  suffering,  terrible  poverty,  and  increased 
the  burdens  of  labor;  but  it  of  course  increased  produc- 
tion and  in  the  end  was  a  blessing.  This  system  is  still 
further  changing  into  what  is  often  called  "big  business," 
or  the  concentration  of  capital  in  large  industries,  a  proc- 
ess which  in  turn  has  caused  much  confusion  by  crowding 
small  industries  to  the  wall. 

With  the  increase  in  size  of  industry  there  has  come 
a  greater  division  of  labor.  Under  the  handicraft  system 
a  man  generally  constructed  an  entire  article,  such  as  a 
pair  of  shoes,  a  chair,  or  a  carriage.  With  the  division 
of  labor  in  the  present-day  factory  he  does  only  a  part, 
passing  on  the  uncompleted  article  to  some  one  else,  who 
adds  another  touch  and  passes  it  on  to  still  another. 
This  method  has  been  so  highly  developed  by  the  inven- 
tion of  modern  machinery  that  an  ordinary  article,  like 
a  shoe  or  a  hat,  passes  through  hundreds  of  hands  in  the 


264  Social  Achievement 

factory  itself,  to  say  nothing  of  those  who  handle  the 
raw  material  before  it  reaches  the  factory,  and  those  who 
transport  and  sell  the  finished  article.  This  division  has 
enabled  man  to  become  highly  skilled  and  to  produce  in 
large  quantities,  and  so  has  enabled  society  to  have  more 
commodities  than  otherwise  would  have  been  possible, 
but  it  has  also  brought  in  its  own  problems,  as  we  shall 
see  later. 

Social  Effects  of  Industrial  Development. — The  first 
great  benefit  of  industrial  development  to  society  is  of 
course  increased  production,  since  it  furnishes  a  greater 
mass  of  commodities  with  which  to  satisfy  human  desires 
and  allows  man  continually  to  advance.  But  this  very 
accumulation  of  wealth  has  accentuated  the  problem  of 
distribution,  for  never  in  the  history  of  the  world  has 
/there  been  anything  like  an  equal  distribution  of  wealth, 
the  strong  always  having  a  monopoly.  To-day  the  decid- 
ing factor  is  not  physical  strength  but  mental  shrewdness. 
This  unequal  distribution,  while  necessary  and  often  just, 
has  led  to  endless  disputes,  class  conflicts,  and  antagonism. 
In  the  handicraft  stage  the  worker  was  also  the  proprietor 
and  had  what  he  produced,  but  under  the  present  in- 
dustrial system  the  laborer  works  for  wages,  which  are  set 
by  the  supply  and  demand  for  labor  and  are  not  governed, 
except  as  to  the  upper  limit,  by  the  productivity  of  the 
labor.  In  this  way  labor  has  often  been  exploited, 
notoriously  so  at  the  beginning  of  the  industrial  revolu- 
tion in  England  in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  the  employer  paid  as  small  wages  as  pos- 
sible. This  caused  organizations  of  labor  to  resist  ex- 
ploitation, bringing  on  conflicts  between  capital  and  labor 
in  the  way  of  strikes  and  lockouts,  which  often  resulted 
in  extreme  violence  on  both  sides.  The  present  tendency 
is  towards  the  arbitration  of  labor  disputes,  such  a  method 
having  been  already  adopted  in  some  countries,  particu- 
larly New  Zealand.  Both  capital  and  labor  oppose  this 
movement,  however,  both  preferring  to  settle  such  dis- 
putes without  outside  interference. 

The  development  of  industry  has  not  only  allowed  each 


Social  Achievement  265 

worker  to  produce  more,  but  has  enabled  him  to  do  so 
in  a  shorter  time.  Modern  factory  hours  are  far  shorter 
than  hours  of  labor  under  the  handicraft  stage,  and  the 
modern  workman  has  far  less  anxiety  in  regard  to  obtain- 
ing food,  clothing,  and  shelter  for  himself  and  family 
than  had  primitive  man,  who  was  obliged  to  rely  wholly 
upon  his  own  efforts.  But  the  building  up  of  factory 
towns  has  brought  with  it  neglect  of  the  comforts  of  the 
workers,  often  producing  poor  dwellings,  lack  of  sanita- 
tion, bad  surroundings,  and  unpleasant  home  life.  Fac- 
tory conditions  have  not  always  been  sanitary  and 
hygienic;  as  a  rule  they  have  been  just  the  opposite. 
This  situation  has  compelled  society  to  take  a  hand  in 
the  matter  and,  either  through  public  opinion  or  legisla- 
tive enactment,  force  factory  owners  to  look  after  the 
welfare  of  their  workers.  Industrial  development  has 
built  up  a  complicated  system  of  co-operation,  yet  in  this 
machine  too  often  the  laborer  has  become  a  mere  cog, 
his  individuality  being  repressed  and  his  very  welfare 
ignored.  The  present  machine  process,  where  each 
worker  merely  adds  one  touch  to  an  article,  passes  it  on, 
takes  up  another,  and  performs  the  same  operation,  is 
deadening  to  his  nerves,  and  dulls  his  physical  and  mental 
process.  He  becomes  a  mere  piece  of  the  whole  mechanism. 
The  invention  of  machines  has  made  man's  labor  less 
violent  physically,  but  has  at  the  same  time  ushered  in 
child  and  woman  labor,  because  a  child  or  woman  can 
often  tend  a  machine  as  easily  as  a  man.  This  competi- 
tion has  kept  down  the  wages  of  man.  Industrial  develop- 
ment has  given  the  opportunity  of  providing  man  greater 
time  for  leisure,  rest,  recreation,  and  education,  but  the 
laborer  has  not  always  been  allowed  to  receive  the  benefit 
of  this,  the  chance  too  frequently  being  monopolized  by 
the  employer  and  used  in  building  up  a  fortune,  only  to 
be  wasted  by  his  family  in  luxurious  living.  This  con- 
dition is  steadily  growing  less  serious,  for  the  worker  is 
demanding  shorter  hours  and  larger  pay  and  is  steadily 
gaming  these  demands — so  much  so  that  some  are 
becoming  alarmed  because  of  it.  But  at  the  begin- 


266  Social  Achievement 

ning  of  the  industrial  revolution  and  along  through  the 
first  few  decades  of  the  past  century  wages  were  too 
often  starvation  wages.  Twelve  to  sixteen  hours  con- 
stituted the  working  day.  Conditions  were  terrible,  in 
fact  hardly  believable,  children  being  treated  worse  than 
slaves,  especially  in  the  English  factories;  at  the  same 
time  the  factory  owners  were  amassing  immense  fortunes 
and  reveling  in  luxury. 

Such  conditions  could  not  be  permanent  if  civilization 
was  to  advance,  and  fortunately  are  now  a  thing  of  the 
past  in  most  countries.  Industrial  development  has  made 
man's  existence  more  certain  by  insuring  him  the  means 
of  livelihood;  yet  industrial  development  has  made  the 
laborer  dependent  upon  the  factory  and  has  put  the  pos- 
sibility of  work  in  the  hands  of  others.  When  a  board  of 
directors  decides  that  a  factory  is  not  paying  dividends 
it  closes  down  the  plant  until  the  conditions  of  the  market 
change;  meanwhile  the  workers  are  deprived  of  a  chance 
to  earn  a  living.  In  other  words,  dividends  are  of  greater 
importance  than  the  subsistence  of  the  workers.  This 
same  development  has  made  man's  life  less  dangerous 
than  formerly,  yet  it  has  put  his  safety  into  the  hands 
of  others.  We  are  commencing  to  solve  these  problems 
by  providing  sickness,  accident,  and  unemployment  in- 
surance. Thus  while  industrial  evolution  has  increased 
happiness  and  prosperity  it  has  brought  in  its  special 
problems.  As  we  solve  these  problems  other  new  ones 
arise  in  turn  to  be  dealt  with. 


READING  REFERENCES 

WELLS,  H.  G.,  Outlines  of  History,  Chaps.  I-XX. 

MORGAN,  LEWIS  H.,  Ancient  Society,  Part  I. 

THOMAS,  W.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Parts  II  and  III. 

HAYES,  EDWARD   C.,  Introduction  to   the  Study   of  Sociology, 

Part  III. 

CHAPIN,  F.  STUART,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Social  Evolution. 
CHAPIN,    F.    STUART,    An    Historical    Introduction    to    Social 

Economy. 
KIDD,  BENJAMIN,  Social  Evolution. 


Social  Achievement  267 

KROEBER,  A.  L.,  AND  WATERMAN,  T.  T.,  Source  Book  in  Anthro- 

.      pology. 

SPENCER,  HERBERT,  Principles  of  Sociology. 
TYLOR,  E.  B.,  Primitive  Culture. 
BOAS,  F.,  Mind  of  Primitive  Man. 
WARD,  LESTER  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chaps'.  XIX  and  XX. 
LOWIE,  R.  H.,  Primitive  Society,  especially  Chap.  IX. 
BiJCHER,  C.,  Industrial  Evolution,  Wickett's  translation. 
ELY,  RICHARD  T.,  Evolution  of  Industrial  Society. 
CARLETON,  FRANK  T.,  History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor. 
ADAMS,  T.  S.  AND  SUMNER,  HELEN,  Labor  Problems. 
WRIGHT,  CARROLL  D.,  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States. 
BOQART,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States. 

Books  on  Conditions  Among  Primitive  Peoples. 

SPENCER,  B.  AND  GILLIN,  F.  J.,  Northern  Tribes  of  Central  Aus- 
tralia. 

HOWITT,  A.  H.,  Native  Tribes  of  South  Eastern  Australia. 

RIVERS,  W.  H.  R.,  The  Todas. 

SELIGMAN,  MR.  AND  MRS.  C.  G.,  The  Veddas. 

KIDD,  DUDLEY,  The  Essential  Kaffir. 

KIDD,  DUDLEY,  Savage  Childhood. 

CRAWFORD,  J.,  Thinking  Black. 

SKEAT,  W.  W.  AND  BLAGDEN,  C.  0.,  Pagan  Baces  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula. 

WEEKS,  JOHN  H.,  Among  Congo  Cannibals. 

TREMEARNE,  A.  J.  N.,  Hausa  Superstitions  and  Customs,  London, 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  STATE 

By  state  we  mean  the  political  organization  of  in- 
dividuals in  a  more  or  less  definitely  bounded  territory 
for  the  purpose  of  protection  or  preservation  of  the  group. 
It  differs  slightly  from  government,  the  organ  through 
which  the  state  expresses  itself,  or  the  form  which  the 
state  takes  in  exerting  its  control.  The  term,  state,  is 
much  broader  than  that  of  government,  for  it  includes 
all  the  individuals  in  a  given  territory,  while  government 
refers  only  to  the  individuals  in  the  actual  organization. 
The  state  embodies  not  only  a  territory  and  a  population, 
but  also  unity  and  organization.  It  connotes  a  political 
scheme  with  its  laws,  officials,  and  machinery  of  govern- 
ing; it  also  implies  some  kind  of  co-operation  among  its 
members.  In  this  study  we  shall  not  make  an  attempt 
to  cover  the  subject  of  political  science  or  government, 
but  shall  treat  the  state  merely  as  a  social  institution, 
noticing  its  origin  and  development.  In  another  chapter 
we  shall  take  up  law  as  a  means  of  social  control. 

Origin  of  the  State. — Different  Theories. — Because  the 
state  existed  long  before  we  have  any  recorded  history, 
its  exact  origin,  or  origins,  are  not  definitely  known,  but 
are  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture  or  of  theory.  The 
facts  of  history  and  the  conditions  found  to-day  among 
primitive  peoples,  however,  point  back  to  some  forms  and 
characteristics  of  the  primitive  state,  and  from  these 
certain  more  or  less  definite  conclusions  have  been  drawn. 
Some  of  the  theories  which  have  held  sway  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  Theory  of  Divine  Right. — According  to  the  theory  of 
divine  right,  the  Supreme  Being  selected  certain  indi- 
viduals and  ordained  that  they  should  rule  and  govern 
the  rest.  This  theory  was  widely  exploited  in  Europe 

268 


The  State  269 

by  weak  monarehs,  especially  the  Stuarts  and  Bourbons, 
to  create  respect  for  themselves  and  thus  to  enable  them- 
selves to  retain  power  for  which  they  were  otherwise 
unfitted.  It  was  still  more  recently  set  forth  by  the 
Hohenzollerns  to  justify  their  selfish  aims.  This  theory 
has  at  times  performed  valuable  social  service  by  creat- 
ing respect  for  government,  thus  enabling  civilization  to 
progress.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  theory,  popularly 
known  as  "divine  right  of  kings,"  is  no  longer  regarded 
seriously,  although  formerly  many  volumes  were  written 
in  its  defense. 

2.  Social  Contract. — The  theory  of  social  contract,  which 
was   advocated   by   such   men    as    Hobbes,    Locke,    and 
Rousseau,  has  more  validity  than  that  of  divine  right. 
According  to  it,  the  state  is  the  result  of  the  voluntary 
agreement  of  the  individual  members  of  the  state,  who 
come  together  and  form  a  contract  for    some    definite 
organization.    This  agreement  came  about,  it  was  argued, 
from  the  feeling  of  the  need  of  some  method  of  organiza- 
tion and  control.     The  union  of  the  Swiss  cantons  and 
of  the  American  colonies  into  republics  is  often  given  as 
proof  of  this  theory.     While  the  formation  of  these  and 
other  states  in  history  lends  weight  to  the  theory,  we  can- 
not accept  it  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  state  came 
into  existence  before  the  savage  had  reached  that  place 
in  civilization  when  he  was  able  to  appreciate  the  need 
of  any  such  organization;  in  other  words  the  state  came 
into  being  before  such  an  origin  could  have  been  possible. 
With  modern  states,  or  with  those  formed  after  the  people 
had  reached  a  comparatively  high  stage  of  culture,  this 
idea  of  contract  has  played  some  part,  but  even  so  it  is 
only  one  of  the  various  factors  which  determine  the  origin 
of  the  state.    So  while  we  are  obliged  to  give  this  theory 
some  credit,  we  shall  be  required  to  reject  it  as  the  theory 
completely  accounting  for  the  origin  of  the  state. 

3.  Origin  Through  Struggle. — According  to  another  idea, 
the  state  is  the  direct  result  of  race  struggle,  the  weaker 
bands  being  conquered  by  the  stronger  and  a  state  being 
formed  out  of  their  union.    Professor  Ward  was  perhaps 


270  The  State 

the  best  advocate  of  this  theory,  developing  the  idea' 
according  to  the  following  steps  or  stages: 

(a)  Subjugation  of  One  Race  by  Another. — Some  wan- 
dering bands,  going  along  a  river  or  seashore  or  through 
a  valley,  met  another  band  going  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. After  futile  attempts  to  communicate  with  one  an- 
other each  looked  upon  the  other  as  an  enemy  and 
immediately  tried  to  exterminate  it.  The  fight  would 
continue  until  one  band  or  the  other  was  either  extermi- 
nated or  driven  from  the  field.  After  the  encounter  the 
victors  might  even  eat  the  bodies  of  the  fallen  foes  and 
in  this  way  originate  cannibalism.  But  soon  they  would 
find  that  it  was  more  advantageous  to  enslave  their  cap- 
tives than  eat  them.  At  first  the  women  were  enslaved 
and  made  to  serve  as  wives  or  concubines ;  then  later  the 
men  were  put  into  bondage.  Slavery  continued  until  the 
conquerors  found  it  more  profitable  or  advantageous  to 
allow  the  conquered  ones  their  own  liberty,  granting  them 
the  right  to  live  in  their  own  homes  and  to  govern  their 
own  lives,  but  regarding  them  as  inferiors  subject  to  the 
conquerors.  This  gave  rise  to  the  second  stage. 

(fe)  Origin  of  Caste. — After  slavery  was  found  to  be 
too  cumbersome,  the  levying  of  tribute  took  its  place. 
With  this  as  an  incentive  bands  of  warriors  who  excelled 
because  of  superior  weapons  or  organization  would  be 
formed  to  go  out  on  plundering  expeditions.  Sometimes 
they  conquered  a  region  which  they  preferred  to  their  own 
territory  and  forthwith  decided  to  settle  down  upon  the 
people  they  had  conquered,  exacting  tribute  from  them. 
At  first  each  people  despised  the  other,  and  the  conquerors 
by  virtue  of  their  superiority  would  reduce  the  defeated 
peoples  to  a  position  of  inequality,  not  allowing  them  any 
rights.  Thus  a  caste  system  came  to  be  formed,  such 
as  we  have  in  some  countries  at  the  present  time;  India 
is  a  good  example  of  this  condition.  Generally  also  there 
developed  a  middle  group,  usually  a  trading  class,  as  an 
intermediary  between  these  two  castes.  In  addition  there 
gradually  arose  a  third  condition,  as  a  result  of  closer  asso- 
ciations. 


The  State  271 

(c)  A  Gradual  Mitigation  of  the  Condition  of  Caste. — 
After  living  near  one  another  for  a  long  time  each  group 
finally   became   reconciled   to   the   other;   the  conquerors 
would  see  some  good  in  the  people  they  had  despised 
and  the  conquered  would  scorn  to  a  lesser  degree  those 
who   had   defeated  them.     Being   continually  obliged   to 
associate    with    each    other,    their    race    hatred    would 
diminish.     Then,  too,  they  would  intermarry,  the  con- 
querors taking  as  wives  the  most  beautiful  of  the  women 
of  the  conquered,  who  might  not  indeed  always  be  adverse 
to   it.     The   rulers   thus   came   to   regard  their   serfs   as 
human  beings  like  themselves  and  there  would  gradually 
result  a  mitigation  of  the  selfish  and  arbitrary  rule  of 
the  stronger  party.     While  a  state  of  marked  individual, 
social,  and  political  inequality  doubtless  persisted,  there 
would  be  a  great  improvement,  which  easily  led  to  a 
further  stage. 

(d)  Substitution  of  a  Form  of  Law,  With  the  Origin  of 
Legal  Right,  for  the  Purely  Military  Rule  of  the  Con- 
querors.— Before  the  creation  of  a  sense  of  legal  right, 
punishment  of  crime  was  entirely  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
conquerors,  whose  rule  was  absolute.     With  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  the  lower  caste  was  composed  of 
human  beings  who  acted  and  felt  like  themselves,  they 
came  to  recognize  that  these  same  people  had  rights — a 
point  of  view  strengthened  by  intermarriage.  This  caused 
the  laying  down  of  sets  or  codes  of  law,  first  spoken  rules, 
and  later  written  laws,  which  governed  the  action  of  the 
lower  caste  and  regulated  their  treatment  at  the  hands 
of  the  upper  caste.     The  same  thing  was  true  in  regard 
to  property  rights,  at  first  all  property  being  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  conquerors,  but  later  being  allowed 
to  the  lower  caste  as  well. 

(e)  The    Origin    of    the    State. — When    organization 
reached  the  stage  known  as  the  state,  all  classes  had 
both  rights  and  duties.    The  development  of  law  required 
some  system  to  enforce  it;  thus  there  developed  a  form 
of  government,  its  forms  depending  upon  the  people  and 
the  environmental  conditions.     This  usually  took  a  mon- 


272  The  State 

archical  form*  the  rule  being  delegated  to  chiefs,  either 
selected  or  self-appointed,  who  passed  their  power  on  to 
their  descendants.  With  the  growth  of  population  others 
were  brought  into  the  government,  and  in  this  way  the 
various  forms  of  government  evolved. 

(/)  The  Cementing  Together  of  All  This  Mass  of  Hetero- 
geneous Elements  into  a  More  or  Less  Homogeneous  People. 
— With  the  mitigation  of  class  hatred,  the  relaxation  of 
the  arbitrary  rule  of  the  upper  caste,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  spirit  of  mutual  dependence  there  would 
develop  a  mingling  of  all  classes.  The  upper  classes  de- 
pended upon  the  lower  for  soldiers  to  fill  the  army; 
merchants  looked  to  them  for  customers,  and  industry 
drew  upon  them  for  laborers.  The  lower  classes  relied 
upon  the  upper  for  laws,  protection,  and  leadership. 
Thus  a  survival  of  the  best  elements  in  all  divisions  of 
society  came  about.  The  customs,  habits,  religions  and 
institutions  which  were  superior  or  best  adapted  to  con- 
ditions were  adopted.  In  this  way  a  welding  together  of 
all  elements  took  place,  and  the  resulting  institutions  would 
be  superior  to  those  possessed  by  either  band  before  the 
conquest. 

(g)  Rise  and  Development  of  a  Sentiment  of  Patriotism 
and  the  Formation  of  a  Nation. — When  some  great  dan- 
ger, such  as  invasion  by  a  foreign  foe,  arose,  there  de- 
veloped a  feeling  of  patriotism,  a  sentiment  of  attach- 
ment to  the  land  and  a  recognition  of  common  interests, 
and  all  would  unite  to  ward  off  the  danger;  but  what 
is  still  more  important,  the  different  factions  would  be 
welded  into  a  nation. 

While  the  struggle  theory  might  admit  of  peaceful 
assimilation,  the  formation  of  the  state,  like  the  formation 
of  most  institutions,  would  be  primarily  the  product  of 
struggle  or  of  competition,  and  through  this  method  we 
must  advance.  There  is  no  question  that  many  states 
were  evolved  in  this  manner,  but  the  struggle  theory 
is  too  narrow  to  explain  the  formation  of  all  states. 
Many  states  were  the  outcome  of  other  processes,  al- 
though probably  no  state  came  into  existence  without 


The  State  273 

some  competition  and  struggle.  Undoubtedly  it  was  the 
strongest  element  in  the  formation  of  the  state.  In 
modern  times  it  has  softened  down,  and  many  of  the 
earlier  stages  have  been  omitted.  As  a  single  explana- 
tion it  is  the  most  plausible  of  any  yet  suggested,  but  it 
does  not  supply  a  complete  explanation. 

4.  Origin  of  the  State  Through  the  Family. — Another 
theory  often  advanced  (with  a  great  deal  of  historical 
evidence  in  its  favor)  is  that  the  state  is  the  direct  out- 
growth of  the  family,  especially  of  the  patriarchal  family, 
where  the  father  was  the  head  of  the  household  as  long 
as  he  lived.    Not  only  was  he  head  of  the  family,  he  was 
priest,  lawgiver  and  judge  as  well.     He  was  head  not 
only  of  his  own  family  but  of  the  entire  band  of  relatives, 
and  as  this  group  enlarged  the  patriarch  remained  the 
ruler,  passing  his  authority  on  to  his  eldest  son  and  in 
this    way    developing    a    line    of   rulers.      As    problems 
needing    attention   increased,    he    divided   the   work    or 
appointed  others  to  help  him  discharge  his  many  duties, 
delegating  certain  work  to  each  one.1    Morgan,2  in  accord 
with  this  theory,  traces  the  development  of  the  state  from 
the    family   through   the    gens,   a   collection   of  related 
families;  the  phratry,  a  collection  of  allied  or  related 
gentes;  the  tribe,  a  number  of  allied  phratries;  and  the 
nation  or  state,  an  organization  of  tribes.    He  bases  his 
theory  upon  evidence  found  among  the  Iroquois  and  Aztec 
Indians  and  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans.    The  first  early 
organizations  were  undoubtedly  outgrowths  of  the  family, 
and  in  many  places  the  state  can  be  directly  traced  from 
the  family.     But  when  we  attempt  to  say  that  the  state 
as  an  institution  is  merely  the  outgrowth  of  the  family, 
we  meet  with  the  same  defect  that  we  find  in  the  other 
theories  already  advanced — it  is  too  narrow  a  foundation ; 
influences  existing  outside  the  family  were  also  at  work. 
It  was  one  of  the  sources  of  origin,  in  fact  one  of  the 
chief  sources,  but  it  was  by  no  means  the  only  one. 

5.  The   Evolutionary   Origin. — The   generally   accepted 

'Illustrated  by  Exodus  XVIII;  13-26. 
'Morgan,  Ancient  Society,  Part  II. 


274  The  State 

theory  for  the  origin  of  the  state  among  students  of 
political  science  to-day  is  the  historical  or  evolu- 
tionary theory.  The  theory  of  evolutionary  origin  is 
based  upon  the  premise  that  we  cannot  trace  the  origin 
of  the  state  back  to  any  single  source;  that  the  state 
was  not  an  invention  but  a  growth,  an  evolution ;  that  its 
growth  was  a  gradual  process;  that  it  is  the  product  of 
many  forces  and  developed  in  different  countries  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  depending  upon  the  forces  brought  to  bear 
upon  it.  Not  only  race  struggle,  kinship,  and  the  need 
for  protection  affected  it,  but  also  religion,  climate, 
geographical  location,  and  industrial  development.  In 
short,  the  state  is  a  product  of  society,  improving  with 
the  progress  of  society.  The  growth  of  the  state  has  been 
swifter  in  some  places  than  in  others,  because,  conditions 
being  more  favorable,  man  developed  more  rapidly  in 
those  sections.  For  this  reason  we  find  the  state  better 
developed  in  Europe  and  America  than  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  same  conditions  are  not  equally  favorable  to  all 
phases  of  development;  for  instance,  those  favorable  to 
the  state  might  not  be  conducive  to  religion,  and  those 
advantageous  to  industry  might  not  be  stimulative  to  art. 
But  the  state  was  affected  the  same  as  other  institutions 
were  affected,  that  is,  it  grew  rapidly  where  conditions 
were  favorable  and  slowly  where  conditions  were  unfavor- 
able. In  order  to  get  a  clear  understanding  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  state  we  must  consider  some  of  the 
forces  which  have  influenced  its  development. 

Factors  Entering  Into  the  Development  of  the  State. 
— A  study  of  the  development  of  the  state  would  not  be 
complete  without  some  consideration  of  the  factors  enter- 
ing into  its  formation,  but  we  can  mention  only  a  few; 
a  study  of  all  the  factors  would  involve  a  consideration 
of  all  the  influences  affecting  society  in  general.  We' 
have  already  considered  kinship,  and  found  it  to  be  so 
important  that  many  writers  have  called  the  family  the 
origin  of  the  state.  In  the  chapter  on  geographical  influ- 
ences we  considered  the  effect  of  location  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  society,  and  saw  that  the  geographical  condi- 


The  State  275 

tions  determine  to  a  large  extent  the  nature  of  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  size,  importance,  and  character  of  the 
state;  that  if  located  in  the  track  of  civilization,  its 
progress  will  be  rapid,  but  if  left  outside  of  this  track, 
the  state  may  remain  dwarfed  and  primitive.  Natural 
boundaries  may  make  a  strong  government  unnecessary, 
while  unprotected  frontiers  may  compel  such  a  develop- 
ment. The  natural  situation  also  helps  to  determine  the 
form  of  the  government.  The  neighbors  of  a  state  in- 
fluence its  development;  if  they  are  warlike,  they  will 
strengthen  the  authority  of  the  government  and  will  tend 
to  cause  centralization  of  power  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
and  the  organization  of  a  military  or  naval  defense.  The 
character  of  the  neighbors  determines  whether  a  country 
will  be  conquered  or  whether  its  people  will  themselves 
turn  conquerors.  Richness  of  natural  resources  will  invite 
conquest,  and  scarcity  of  neighbors  will  insure  against 
invasion.  Isolation  will  tempt  stagnation  in  that  it  offers 
no  incentive  to  progress.  In  short,  geographical  location 
and  environment  are  extremely  important  and  must  not 
be  neglected  in  an  attempt  to  trace  the  evolution  of  the 
state.  It  is  the  disregard  of  this  factor  that  lays  such 
theories  as  the  contract  and  force  theories  open  to  criti- 
cism and  refutation. 

Wealth  and  industry  are  important  factors  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  state.  As  soon  as  personal  property 
rights  were  recognized  there  arose  the  need  of  some 
means  of  protecting  property,  of  some  rules  in  regard 
to  its  ownership,  and  of  some  authority  to  carry  out  these 
rules.  These  were  some  of  the  motives  prompting  man  to 
organize  government,  some  of  the  needs  which  had  to  be 
filled.  When  property  was  developed  still  further  and 
the  various  forms  of  industry  arose,  the  need  for  protec- 
tion increased,  and  additional  steps  were  taken  to  insure 
it.  This  fact  caused  those  having  wealth  to  take  greater 
interest  in  government  and  to  attempt  to  get  control. 
Where  industry  has  reached  the  greatest  development, 
we  find  the  strongest  influence  exercised  by  the  wealthy 
classes,  especially  if  the  control  of  industry  is  centered 


276  The  Stale' 

in  the  hands  of  a  few.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  wealth  is 
evenly  distributed,  the  government  is  democratic.  The 
nature  of  the  prevailing  industry  must  also  be  considered. 
Pastoral  life  tended  towards  a  patriarchal  system  and 
brought  with  it  slavery  and  absolute  obedience  to  the 
ruler.  Agricultural  life  caused  disputes  over  boundaries 
and  water  holes,  and  occasioned  the  need  of  rules  in  re- 
gard to  them.  Hunting  and  fishing  called  for  rules  gov- 
erning the  division  of  game.  The  accumulation  of  prop- 
erty is  largely  the  basis  of  social  classification,  producing 
such  distinctions  as  master  and  slave,  lord  and  serf, 
employer  and  employee,  and  capital  and  labor.  In  this 
way  governing  classes  have  originated,  which  are  based 
to  a  large  extent  upon  the  ownership  of  property. 

Religion  is  a  factor  which  is  both  neglected  and  over 
emphasized.  Religion  has  promoted  social  discipline,  for 
it  has  been  a  force  holding  the  group  together,  restrain- 
ing the  wayward  and  radical.  It  has  been  of  aid  in  teach- 
ing respect  for  those  in  power,  for  at  first  the  religious 
and  the  political  leaders  were  the  same,  and  later  were 
in  close  alliance.  In  this  way  religion  has  helped  to  bring 
about  much  greater  progress  in  political  organization 
than  would  have  been  possible  without  it.  At  first 
religion  was  a  tribal  affair  and  not  a  matter  of  individual 
concern,  and  the  chief  was  supposed  to  have  divine  sanc- 
tion, thus  adding  to  his  power.  Later  states  incorporated 
religion  into  the  government,  as  was  done  particularly 
by  the  Hebrews,  and  in  varying  degrees  by  the  Romans, 
Spanish,  French,  English,  Chinese,  and  Russians.  On  the 
other  hand,  religion  has  called  upon  the  state  to  carry 
out  its  commands  and  to  enlarge  its  influence.  The 
Roman  Catholic  and  Mohammedan  faiths  particularly, 
and  even  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Puritans  are 
examples.  Religion  has  compelled  the  state  to  make  the 
laws  in  its  favor,  especially  laws  against  sacrilege,  non- 
observance  of  the  Sabbath,  and  the  breaking  of  religious 
customs.  In  recent  years  we  have  drifted  away  from  this 
idea  of  the  joining  of  church  and  state ;  we  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  two  ought  to  be  separated ;  but  at 


The  State  277 

one  time  in  many,  if  not  in  the  majority,  of  races  the 
idea  was  held  that  they  either  were  synonymous  or  went 
hand  in  hand. 

The  contribution  of  the  individual  must  not  be  wholly 
overlooked,  although  modern  history  is  giving  less  and 
less  space  to  the  deeds  of  military  heroes  and  great  kings 
than  formerly.  Conquests  have  often  been  the  result  of 
individual  ambition  backed  up  by  military  power; 
examples  are  found  in  Babylon,  Assyria,  and  Persia;  in 
the  Greeks  under  Alexander;  the  majority  of  the  Roman 
conquests;  those  of  many  of  the  rulers  of  Europe  during 
the  Middle  Ages;  and  in  recent  times  in  the  campaigns 
of  Napoleon  and  the  bid  for  world  power  made  by  Ger- 
many in  1914.  Conquests  have  been  made  in  order  to 
extend  boundaries,  smaller  and  less  powerful  states  being 
absorbed,  sometimes  by  more  or  less  peaceful  means,  as 
in  the  formation  of  the  late  German  Empire,  but  more  often 
by  warlike  means.  The  conquests  of  Poland,  Hungary, 
Finland,  and  India,  are  examples  of  this  method. 

Sometimes  states  break  up  after  the  death  of  the 
founder,  crumbling  like  the  empire  of  Alexander.  Again 
when  the  central  power  becomes  weak,  the  state  either 
breaks  up  or  loses  its  outlying  provinces ;  in  this  way  the 
Koman  Empire  broke  up,  and  Spain  lost  all  her  posses- 
sions. Often  upon  the  death  of  a  king  his  children  divide 
up  the  empire,  as  the  kingdom  of  Charlemagne  was  dis- 
membered. Then  again  if  the  different  elements  are  not 
welded  together  and  thoroughly  assimilated,  they  often 
break  apart;  sometimes  after  struggle,  as  when  the 
Balkan  provinces  and  Greece  broke  away  from  Turkey^ 
and  sometimes  peaceably,  as  in  the  separation  of  Norway 
and  Sweden  in  1905.  Now  and  then  colonies  are  formed 
to  be  of  help  to  the  mother  country,  and  very  frequently 
they  become  alienated  in  interest  and  spirit  and  finally 
detach  themselves,  perhaps  because  of  injustice  and  mis- 
rule, or  simply  because  of  the  growth  of  different  inter- 
ests. The  Greek  colonies,  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
America,  and  the  American  colonies  are  such  examples. 

But  as  a  rule,  the  tendency;  has  been  to  unite,  for  the 


278  The  State 

stronger  to  absorb  the  weaker.  This  process  has  been 
going  on  for  thousands  of  years  and  is  still  going  on, 
occasionally  through  peaceable  union,  but  more  fre- 
quently through  force,  the  stronger  unit  subjugating  the 
weaker  or  compelling  it  to  come  into  the  union.  In  fact, 
the  modern  state  is  often  made  up  of  very  heterogeneous 
elements,  being  the  result  of  conquests,  trades,  and 
treaties.  The  map  of  Europe  before  the  Great  "War 
furnished  a  proof  of  this,  perhaps  the  most  striking  illus- 
tration being  that  of  Austria-Hungary.  So  great  was  this 
absorption  of  the  weak  by  the  strong,  that  the  peace  con- 
ference found  it  practically  impossible  to  restore  to 
smaller  nationalities  their  former  liberties. 

Functions  of  the  State. — Nearly  every  writer  on  politics 
defines  in  some  manner  or  other  the  functions  of  the  state. 
These  definitions  all  differ  in  detail,  although  most  of 
them  now  agree  in  the  fundamental  principles.  As  time 
goes  on  and  the  state  develops,  it  assumes  functions  which 
formerly  were  delegated  to  other  institutions.  It  ha? 
taken  over  many  functions  from  religion,  such  as  the  care 
of  dependants;  from  the  family,  particularly  education 
of  the  children;  and  from  the  individual,  as  the  punish- 
ment of  crime.  The  state  is  constantly  adding  to  its  duties 
and  enlarging  its  powers.  The  following,  however,  may 
be  given  as  the  principal  functions  of  the  state  as  we 
conceive  them  to-day: 

1.  Tine  Preservation  and  Maintenance  of  National  Integ- 
rity.— Before  a  state  can  do  much  of  anything  it  must  be 
certain  of  its  own  existence.     It  must  protect  itself  from 
foreign  enemies  and   from  the   encroachments    of    other 
states;  it  must  also  insure  itself  against  insurrections  of 
its  own  citizens.     To  do  this  it  is  obliged  to  maintain 
armies,  navies,  and  police  systems  with  all  their  appur- 
tenances, as  forts,  spies,  and  detectives. 

2.  The  Protection  of  Life  and  Property  of  Its  Citizens, 
Including  the  Right  to  Transfer  and  Inherit  Property. — 
This  was  one  of  the  first  functions  (and  is  yet  a  primary 
one)    of   the   state — the   protection    of   its   citizens    from 
violence  both  from  foreign  enemies  and  from  other  mem- 


The  State  279 

bers  of  the  state.  Lawless  elements  must  always  be  held 
in  restraint.  The  power  to  do  this  is  the  first  test  of  a  state, 
for  if  life  and  property  are  not  safe  the  country  cannot 
progress.  If  a  state  cannot  protect  life  and  property  it 
is  weak  and  soon  falls  a  victim  to  a  stronger  state. 

3.  The  Making  and  Enforcing  of  Laws,  Including  the 
Defining   of   Crime  and  Its  Punishment. — This   function 
really  includes  many  others,  but  because  it  is  one  of  the 
first  to  be  assumed,  the  others  coming  in  as  later  develop- 
ments, it  is  mentioned  separately.    This  function  was  exer- 
cised by  ancient  rulers,  the  earliest  chiefs,  who  ruled  by 
reason  of  the  strong  arm;  it  was  performed  also  by  the 
patriarchs.     It  has  never  been  relinquished;  on  the  con- 
trary it  has  been  greatly  extended.     The  punishment  of 
crime  was  originally,  however,  largely  a  family  or  indi- 
vidual duty;  it  has  now  become  entirely  a  state  function. 
At  first  laws  were  merely  arbitrary  rules  laid  down  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  rulers,  although  even  then  the  protection 
of  the  group  and  to  some  extent  of  the  individuals  in  the 
group  was  considered ;  but  the  tendency  has  been  to  put 
greater  and  greater  stress  upon  what  is  for  the  best  inter- 
ests of  society.    In  order  to  protect  itself  and  its  members 
the  state  is  obliged  to  define  crime  and  to  affix  penalties 
for  the  breaking  of  laws.    The  performance  of  these  func- 
tions requires  legislative  machinery. 

4.  The  Administration  of  Justice,  not  Only  Between  the 
State  and  Its  Citizens,  but  Among  the  Citizens  Themselves. 
— For  this  judges  and  courts  have  been  instituted  to  con- 
sider grievances  and  to  see  that  justice  is  given. 

5.  The  Defining  of  Relationships,  Duties,   Obligations, 
and  Privileges  Within  the  State. — This  includes  the  defin- 
ing of  the  relationships  among  members  of  families,  the 
rights  of  individuals,  and  those  of  institutions  within  the 
state. 

6.  The  Regulation  of  Contracts,  Including  Debts,  Obliga- 
tions, Etc. — In   order  to  allow  the   greatest  freedom  of 
action  and  to  accomplish  the  administration  of  justice,  the 
state  is  obliged  to  see  that  contracts  are  legal  and  valid. 
This  care  is  necessary  to  insure  the  stability  of  business 


280  The  State 

and  the  development  of  industry,  as  well  as  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  individual. 

The  above  are  the  leading  functions  of  the  state  as  gen- 
erally agreed  upon,  but  there  are  coming  into  existence 
others  which  formerly  were  not  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  state,  but  were  left  entirely  to  other  institutions. 
Even  now  there  is  not  always  uniformity  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  their  appertaining  to  the  state,  rather  than  to 
private  control.  We  shall  treat  them  simply  as  duties  im- 
posed upon  the  modern  state. 

7.  The  Regulation  of  Industry,  Trade,  and  Labor  Con- 
ditions.— The  regulation  of  industry  is  now  being  attempted 
by  the  state,  taking  such  forms  as  the  curbing  of  trusts, 
the  safeguarding  of  competition,  the  requirement  of  honesty 
in  business  relations,  and  the  control  over  labor  disputes, 
enough  at  least  to   insure  the  protection  of  the  public 
against    strikes    and    lockouts.      Compulsory    arbitration, 
minimum  wage  laws,  the  eight-hour  day,  and  various  gov- 
ernmental commissions,   are  examples.     This  function  is 
steadily  growing  and  new  phases  are    constantly    being 
added,  such  as  social  insurance  against  unemployment,  sick- 
ness,  and   accident.  Formerly  these  were   all   considered 
private  matters,  but  they  are  now  being  more  and  more 
considered  as  legitimate  functions  of  the  state. 

8.  The  Protection  of  Public  Health. — Requirements  for 
sanitation,  protection  against  contagious  diseases,  inspec- 
tion of  factories,  requirement  of  safety  devices  for  danger- 
ous machinery,  building  codes,  milk  inspection,  street  clean- 
ing, anti-spitting  laws,  sewage  and  garbage  disposal,  and 
laws  forbidding  the  adulteration  of  foods,  are  good  illus- 
trations of  the  working  out  of  the  public  health  protection 
office  of  the  state.    This  is  a  function  which  is  being  con- 
stantly extended. 

9.  Education. — Until  very  recently  education  was  a  pri- 
vate matter;  in  fact,  when  the  socialists  first  began  to 
advocate  public  education,  it  was  considered  a  radical  if 
not  dangerous  theory.    Now  we  accept  it  without  any  dis- 
pute, except  in  regard  to  its  extension.    At  first  it  meant 
only    elementary    education;    then    it    was    extended    to 


The  State  281 

secondary  instruction,  such  as  the  high  school ;  then  finally 
to  college  and  university  education,  and  now  to  industrial 
and  professional  training.  Private  education  has  not,  how- 
ever, been  driven  from  the  field;  in  higher  branches  it  is 
holding  its  own  and  supplying  a  valuable  addition  to  public 
education.  It  is  coming  to  be  recognized  as  the  duty  of 
the  state  to  educate  its  citizens  in  any  legitimate  calling 
or  profession  as  far  as  they  care  to  go.  In  the  immediate 
future  we  can  look  for  a  still  greater  extension  of  this 
function  of  the  state,  especially  along  the  lines  of  industrial 
and  technical  training. 

10.  Care  of  the  Dependent  and  Defective  Classes. — The 
burden  of  the  care  of  the  unfortunate  has  been  lifted  from 
the  shoulders  of  the  individual  and  the  church,  although 
neither  is  discouraged  from  aiding  in  the  work.     Care  is 
now  given  to  the  sick  who  are  not  able  to  care  for  them- 
selves, and  is  supplemented  by  protection  against  sickness 
in  the  form  of  health  insurance.  It  is  being  recognized  more 
and  more  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  care  for  the 
aged  or  at  least  to  see  that  they  do  not  fall  into  want; 
not  only  to  see  that  they  do  not  actually  suffer,  but  also 
that  they  have  a  measure  of  comfort,  especially  if  they 
have  lived  hard-working,  industrious  lives.    It  is  also  com- 
ing to  be  recognized  as  a  function  of  the  state  to  prevent 
poverty  as  far  as  possible  by  the  regulation  of  industry 
and  by  insurance  against  low  wages  and  bad  industrial 
conditions.     In  this  field  emphasis  is  being  shifted  from 
mere  relief  to  prevention.     The  aim  is  not  only  to  care 
for  the  dependent  and  defective  classes,  but  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  such  classes  in  the  future. 

11.  Regulation  and  Prohibition  of  Industries  and  Activi- 
ties Considered  as  Injurious  to  the  Public. — The  regulation 
or  prohibition  of  the  liquor  business,  control  of  the  sale 
of  drugs,  censorship  of  theaters,  forbidding  the  use  of 
phosphorus  in  the  manufacture  of  matches,  licensing  of 
pool  halls,  and  the  suppression  of  gambling,  in  short  the 
curbing  or  preventing  of  anything  considered  detrimental 
to  the  public  welfare — all  these  are  now  considered  to 
lie  within  the  functions  of  the  state. 


282  The  State 

12.  The  Bight  to  Carry  on  Industry. — Formerly  state 
monopolies  were  allowed  for  revenue  purposes,  but  now 
it  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that  as  soon  as  the  state 
can  carry  on  a  business  or  industry  better  than  an  in- 
dividual, it  is  the  right  and  duty  of  the  state  to  take  up 
this  work.  In  this  respect  the  world  is  becoming  more 
socialistic.  This  theory  did  not  meet  with  much  favor 
in  the  United  States  until  our  entry  into  the  Great  War. 
Since  the  war  there  has  been  a  reaction  against  this  policy, 
but  the  arguments  for  and  against  such  a  course  center 
upon  whether  the  government  is  able  to  carry  on  the 
business  in  a  manner  more  satisfactory  to  the  public,  than 
private  individuals,  rather  than  upon  whether  the  govern- 
ment has  the  right. 

Evolution  of  the  Forms  of  Government. — In  the  early 
days  of  human  society  there  was  very 'little  government, 
for  during  the  periods  of  the  horde  and  matriarchy  the 
condition  of  anarchy  generally  prevailed.  Then  when  gov- 
ernment did  emerge,  it  took  ordinarily  the  form  of  the 
rule  of  one  or  a  few,  and  that  the  rule  of  the  strong 
arm.  Later  government  took  a  monarchical  or  oligarchical 
form.  Law  was  generally  the  arbitrary  will  of  these 
rulers.  But  as  civilization  advanced,  the  demand  arose 
for  a  diffusion  of  the  governmental  authority,  and  con- 
stitutional rights  and  privileges  were  gradually  extended ; 
then  constitutions,  like  the  English  constitution,  slowly 
grew.  With  such  development  constitutional  monarchies, 
democracies,  and  republics  emerged.  We  of  course  can 
assign  no  dates  for  any  of  these  stages,  for  we  find 
democracies  existing  early  in  the  history  of  the  world,' 
in  fact  some  very  primitive  tribes  have  democratic  forms 
of  government.  Many  of  these  so-called  early  democracies, 
particularly  the  early  Greek  states,  were  not  democracies 
as  we  consider  a  democracy  to-day,  for  the  right  to  enjoy 
political  privileges  was  limited  to  a  few.  The  present-day 
republic  is  simply  the  modern  method  of  carrying  out 
this  demand  of  the  people  for  a  share  in  the  government ; 
yet  many  constitutional  monarchies  give  as  many,  and  in 
fact  often  more,  popular  rights  than  some  republics. 


The  State  283 

We  cannot  here  go  into  a  discussion  of  government,  the 
forms  it  has  taken,  and  an  analysis  of  each;  that  study 
belongs  to  political  science.  Our  treatment  comprises  only 
its  development  as  a  social  institution  and  its  social  func- 
tions and  does  not  include  the  study  of  the  machinery 
of  government,  interesting  as  such  a  study  is.  The  whole 
tendency  has  been  towards  the  granting  to  the  individuals 
in  the  state  a  greater  share  in  the  government  as  well  as 
more  equal  rights  and  privileges.  A  still  more  modern 
tendency  is  towards  the  centralization  of  power  in  this 
government  and  the  extension  of  the  duties  and  functions 
of  the  state.  In  short,  the  world  is  becoming  not  only 
more  democratic  but  also  more  socialistic.  Such  a  develop- 
ment was  impossible  till  the  mass  of  humanity  reached  a 
state  of  civilization  where  it  could  properly  exercise 
political  duties  and  privileges.  In  this  manner  the  state 
has  developed  as  fast  as  society  allowed  it  to  develop; 
it  has  been  the  product  of  society,  evolving  as  rapidly  as 
society  needed  it. 


READING  REFERENCES 

WEBSTER,  BUTTON,  Primitive  Secret  Societies. 

LOWIE,  R.  H.,  Primitive  Society,  Chaps.  XIII-XIV. 

MORGAN,  L.  H.,  Ancient  Society,  Part  II. 

GIDDINGS,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Book  II,  Chap.  IV,  pp. 

199-360. 
GARNER,   J.   W.,   Introduction  to   Political   Science,   Especially 

Chap.  IV. 
LEACOCK,    STEPHEN,   Elements   of  Political   Science,   Especially 

Chaps.  II  and  III. 
GETTELL,  R.  G.,  Problems  of  Political  Evolution.     One  of  very 

best  references. 

WARD,  L.  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chap.  X. 
THOMAS,  W.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Part  VII. 
ROUSSEAU,  J.  J.,  The  Social  Contract. 
MERRIAM,  C.  E.,  American  Political  Ideas. 
WILSON,  WOODROW,  The  State. 

WILLOUGHBY,  W.  W.,  The  Government  of  Modern  States. 
WILLOUGHBY,  W.  W.,  The  Nature  of  the  State. 
HATES,  CARLTON,  British  Social  Politics, 


CHAPTER  XIV 
RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 

Because  of  the  sacredness  attached  to  religion  it  is 
always  a  difficult  subject  to  treat  in  a  scientific  manner. 
As  soon  as  one  attempts  such  a  study,  he  is  certain  to  be 
branded  as  an  atheist,  agnostic,  materialist,  or  heretic,  no 
matter  how  lofty  and  conscientious  may  be  his  motive 
or  how  elevating  the  result  of  the  study.  It  sometimes 
seems  that  religion  is  one  thing  which  the  average  person 
has  settled  so  far  as  he  is  concerned ;  it  seems  that  he 
cannot  tolerate  having  anyone  else  advocate  a  different 
theory  or  offer  any  other  explanation  or  interpretation. 
Nearly  everybody  has  his  own  interpretation  of  the  Bible 
(which,  however,  in  most  cases  was  given  him  by  some- 
body else)  and  he  brands  as  wrong  every  other  inter- 
pretation'. The  same  attitude  is  held  in  regard  to  other 
religions;  each  person  thinks  he  has  a  monopoly  of  the 
truth. 

While  we  are  slowly  relinquishing  this  idea,  it  still  pre- 
vails. There  is  also  a  great  deal  of  difference  of  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  effects  of  religion  upon  society.  Some 
people  give  it  credit  for  all  social  progress,  while  others 
are  equally  confident  that  religion  has  been  a  hindrance 
to  progress.  The  advocate  of  each  of  these  theories  has 
no  difficulty  in  furnishing  abundance  of  evidence  in  sup- 
port of  his  belief,  one  pointing  to  reforms  in  government, 
education,  the  family,  and  social  life,  and  others  pointing 
to  the  horrors  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  the  torture  of 
the  Christians  in  the  Roman  arena,  Druid  worship  in 
Britain,  and  the  human  sacrifices  demanded  in  worship 
by  the  Aztecs,  asserting  furthermore,  with  a  great  deal 
of  truth,  that  some  of  the  greatest  horrors  in  the  history, 
of  man  have  been  committed  in  the  name  of  religion.  The 

284 


Religion  and  Ethics  285 

truth  of  the  matter  is  that  both  are  right;  the  effect  of 
religious  activity  depends  upon  the  time,  place,  and  char- 
acter of  the  religion  under  discussion. 

Religion  cannot  be  overlooked  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant forces  in  the  development  of  civilization.  Sociol- 
ogy makes  no  attempt  to  discuss  theism  or  theological 
doctrines;  it  considers  the  religious  tendency  of  man  as 
one  of  the  innate  human  characteristics  affecting  his  life ; 
it  studies  the  development  of  religion  as  an  institution, 
and  observes  its  effect  upon  human  progress.  The  chief  in- 
terest of  sociology  in  religion  is  as  a  social  institution  and 
as  an  element  of  social  control.  The  former  we  shall  now 
consider. 

Evolution  of  Religion. — There  is  a  great  deal  of  differ- 
ence of  opinion  even  as  to  what  should  be  included  under 
the  name  of  religion,  and  as  a  result  we  have  an  endless 
number  of  definitions;  in  fact  almost  every  writer  on 
religion  has  a  different  definition  and  conception  of  the 
subject.  For  the  purpose  of  the  sociologist  Menzies1  gives 
perhaps  the  best  definition,  calling  it  the  "worship  of 
higher  powers  from  a  sense  of  need,"  which  implies  the 
belief  in  some  power  or  powers  more  potent  than  ihd 
individual.  It  includes  a  feeling  of  dependence  and  need, 
a  feeling  which  finds  expression  in  acts  of  worship.  While 
religious  sentiment  takes  many  forms,  it  is  found  among 
all  races  and  is  admitted  to  be  an  innate  trait  of  man- 
kind. 

Religion  and  civilization  have  advanced  together,  and 
in  this  respect  religion  resembles  other  social  institutions. 
"We  must  not  expect  to  find  a  high  religion  among  people 
living  in  savagery  or  barbarism,  for  they  could  not  ap- 
preciate a  lofty  conception  of  religion.  Neither  must  we 
expect  a  religion  belonging  to  a  low  period  of  civilization 
to  continue  after  the  people  emerge  from  that  condition, 
for  they  will  not  be  satisfied  with  it  and  will  demand  a 
loftier  conception.  So  religion,  like  other  institutions, 
tends  to  reflect  the  stage  of  progress  achieved  by  a  people. 
However,  the  forces  that  influence  the  religion  of  a  people 

1  Menzies,  Allan,  History  of.  BeKgion,  p.  13. 


286  Religion  and  Ethics 

may  not  be  the  same  forces  which  determine  their  form 
of  government  or  their  industrial  development ;  hence  we 
may  find  a  conception  of  religion  in  advance  of,  or  behind 
the  state  of  progress  of  other  institutions.  Geographical 
environment,  like  that  of  Palestine  and  its  surrounding 
countries,  might  tend  to  stimulate  religious  ideas  and  yet 
hinder  economic  development.  So  we  must  not  expect 
to  find  the  same  rate  of  development  among  all  races. 
But  we  shall  find  that  there  has  been  a  steady,  if  not 
regular,  progress,  the  higher  religion  supplanting  the 
lower.  Besides  the  different  religions  themselves  are  con- 
stantly undergoing  change,  and  while  some  religions  de- 
generate, there  is  on  the  whole  a  constant  tendency  up- 
ward, religious  conceptions  steadily  growing  purer  and 
loftier.  In  our  treatment  of  the  evolution  of  religion 
we  must  include  all  religions,  whether  degrading  or 
elevating;  we  shall  attempt  also  to  trace  the  constant 
progress  that  has  been  made. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  describe  primitive  religion, 
for  the  religion  of  the  savage  is  seemingly  a  bewildering 
confusion  of  all  manner  of  beliefs.  It  has  been  influenced 
by  a  vast  number  of  forces,  and  has  all  kinds  of  extraor- 
dinary growths ;  so  it  is  very  hard  to  reduce  the  evolution 
of  religion  to  any  definite  order,  and  in  any  such  series 
many  exceptions  must  be  allowed  and  few  dates  or  periods 
of  time  assigned.  But  in  general  the  following  seems  to 
have  been  the  approximate  scheme  of  development : 2 

1.  Nature  Worship. — Sometimes  in  discussions  of  primi- 
tive religion  animal  worship  is  separated  from  the  worship 
of  other  objects  of  nature,  such  as  rocks,  mountains,  the 
sun,  the  moon,  stars,  trees,  waterfalls,  etc. ;  but  in  this 
study  all  will  be  treated  together,  because  the  theories 
of  worship  were  much  the  same,  the  periods  of  time  con- 
cerned were  identical,  and  the  effects  were  quite  similar. 
Primitive  man  lived  in  a  world  which  he  did  not  under- 

2  It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  it  is  not  meant  that  every  form 
of  religion,  or  any  particular  religion  for  that  matter,  has  passed 
through  the  following  order;  but  what  is  meant  is,  that  this  is  an 
attempt  to  arrange  in  the  order  of  advancement  and  that  develop- 
ment in  general  followed  such  lines. 


Religion  and  Ethics  287 

stand;  he  was  surrounded  by  all  manner  of  dangers, 
many  of  which  he  could  not  see  or  comprehend;  so  it  is 
no  wonder  that  he  feared  nature.  Since  he  could  not 
explain  many  of  the  objects  of  nature  about  him,  it  was 
only  natural  that  he  should  look  upon  them  as  being 
animated  like  himself ;  and  when  he  did  so  and  conceived 
them  as  being  more  powerful  than  he,  it  was  only  natural 
that  he  should  attempt  to  obtain  their  good  will  and  to 
get  them  to  aid  him,  or  at  least  not  to  injure  him. 

Primitive  man  thus  began  to  worship  the  objects  of 
nature  that  impressed  him  most  or  that  he  feared  most. 
If  he  lived  in  a  country  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  were 
welcome,  it  followed  that  he  would  worship  the  sun.  The 
sun  is  probably  the  most  common  object  of  worship  among 
nature  worshipers.  If  he  lived  near  a  volcano  or  great 
waterfall,  primitive  man  would  be  impressed  by  it  and 
worship  it.  The  same  would  be  true  of  any  high  moun- 
tain, large  river,  huge  tree,  great  rock,  or  any  animals 
which  were  feared,  such  as  the  tiger,  lion,  alligator,  or 
poisonous  snake  like  the  cobra,  or  any  animal  upon  which 
man  depended  for  food  or  raiment,  such  as  the  cow,  bear, 
or  buffalo.  If  the  rain  brought  prosperity,  it  might  be 
worshiped.  On  the  contrary  the  thunder,  lightning,  or 
tornado  might  be  worshiped  through  fear.  The  sea  and 
nre  have  been  common  objects  of  worship.  At  a  later 
time  animals  and  other  objects  of  nature  were  worshiped, 
because  they  were  considered  as  homes  of  spirits,  es- 
pecially the  spirits  of  ancestors.  This  was  not,  however, 
the  original  type  of  nature  worship  but  a  later  develop- 
ment of  it. 

2.  Spirit  and  Ancestor  Worship;  Spencer's  "Ghost 
Theory." — Primitive  man  could  not  realize  the  full  mean- 
ing of  death,  and  could  not  think  of  the  person  who  died 
as  leaving  this  world  entirely.  He  thought  that  the  spirit 
must  be  simply  leaving  the  body  or  going  upon  a  journey, 
and  that  it  was  therefore  apt  to  return.  Dreams  might 
have  increased  this  belief  in  spirits;  in  fact,  Spencer 
declared  that  belief  in  spirits  came  from  dreams.  This 
conception  of  death,  supplemented  by  dreams,  led  primi- 


288  Religion  and  Ethics 

tive  man  to  believe  that  the  spirit  was  able  to  leave  the 
body  and  to  dwell  at  a  distance  from  it,  or  upon  death 
to  come  back  and  perhaps  enter  into  some  object  of 
nature,  as  a  tree  or  animal,  or  return  to  his  old  hut.  His 
shadow,  his  reflection  in  water,  and  the  echo  of  his  voice 
went  still  further  to  prove  to  the  savage  the  truth  of  such 
a  belief  in  spirits.  Sometimes  the  savage  would  look  upon 
this  spirit  as  a  friend  and  sometimes  as  an  enemy,  depend- 
ing largely  upon  whether  the  person  was  liked  or  feared 
in  life.  Efforts  were  made  to  appease  the  ill  will  or  gain 
the  good  will  of  a  spirit  by  means  of  prayers,  offerings, 
praise,  and  even  flattery.  Also  attempts  were  made  to 
ward  off  its  bad  effects  or  to  protect  one's  self  against 
it  by  means  of  signs  and  charms,  and  even  by  such 
methods  as  striking  a  spear  in  the  ground  when  lying 
down  to  sleep. 

While  many  of  these  customs  and  actions  seem  strange 
to  us,  the  theory  is  logical  enough.  The  belief  in  spirits 
seems  to  have  been  almost  universal,  at  least  the  belief 
that  the  spirit  lived -after  the  body  was  gone;  and  this 
notion  furnished  the  basis  for  higher  conceptions  of  reli- 
gion. Of  course  this  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  spirit 
did  not  always  take  the  form  of  ancestor  worship,  al- 
though in  many  places  it  did.  Such  customs  as  burying 
weapons,  food,  clothing,  and  articles  of  everyday  use  with 
the  body,  and  the  killing  of  slaves  or  wives,  in  order  to 
serve  the  departed  in  the  next  world,  are  merely  customs 
derived  from  the  belief  in  a  future  life. 

Herbert  Spencer,  imagining  that  religion  originated 
from  this  belief,  worked  out  his  famous  "ghost  theory" 
of  the  origin  of  religion.  He  suggested  that  a  savage, 
because  of  overeating,  or  from  some  such  cause,  might 
have  a  dream,  perhaps  of  going  on  some  hunting  expedi- 
tion, and  yet  be  told  next  morning  by  his  wife  or  by 
someone  else  that  he  had  not  stirred  from  his  hut,  but 
had  tossed  about  all  night ;  that  he  might  see  his  reflection 
in  the  pool  of  water ;  that  he  might  go  into  some  canyon 
and  shout  and  hear  his  voice  «ome  echoing  back  from 
its  walls;  and  that  in  this  way  he  would  come  to  the 


Religion  and  Ethics  289 

natural  conclusion  that  he  had  a  double,  which  could 
leave  him  at  will,  especially  when  he  slept.  Sleep-walking, 
delirium  and  swooning  would  only  go  still  further  to 
confirm  in  the  mind  of  the  savage  such  a  belief. 

From  this  belief  in  a  double  personality  came  ancestor 
worship — based  on  a  feeling  that  the  spirits  of  ancestors 
hovered  about — and  the  idea  of  transmigration  of  souls — 
that  the  spirit  of  the  dead  person  entered  some  animal 
or  object  of  worship.  An  animal  with  a  scar  which  had 
a  resemblance  to  a  scar  carried  by  a  man  before  his  death 
was  of  course  recognized  as  the  possessor  of  the  soul  of 
the  dead  man.  Animal  and  nature  worship  originated 
in  this  way,  according  to  Spencer,  as  a  development  of 
ancestor  worship.  In  fact,  Spencer  attempted  to  show 
that  all  religions  originated  in  this  fashion.  The  theory 
was  of  course  built  upon  too  narrow  a  foundation,  for 
while  possibly  some  religions  began  in  this  manner,  it  is 
preposterous  to  assert  that  all  religions  were  thus  evolved. 
Ancestor  worship  still  survives  in  many  countries,  most 
noticeably  in  China,  simply  because  the  people  have  not 
emerged  as  yet  from  this  stage.  In  some  countries  it  pre- 
ceded nature  worship,  at  least  in  certain  forms,  but  as  a 
rule  ancestor  worship  came  later,  being  an  outgrowth  of 
nature  worship.  It  in  turn  gave  way  to  higher  forms,  al- 
though many  of  the  nobler  phases  of  spirit  worship  survived 
and  were  carried  over  into  some  of  the  higher  religions. 
Like  nature  worship,  spirit  and  ancestor  worship  was 
accompanied  by  many  strange  customs,  and  was  much 
interwoven  with  superstition  and  magic. 

3.  Fetish  Worship. — In  fetish  worship  an  object  is  idol- 
ized, not  because  the  object  itself  is  thought  to  be  a 
divinity,  but  because  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  residence 
of  a  spirit  or  god.     In  this  way  any  striking  object  of 
nature   or   any  unusual   object   might   be   worshiped;    it 
might  be  carried  around  as  a  kind  of  talisman.    This  type 
of  religion  might  be  called  a  combination  of  the  preceding 
two;  it  is  an  outgrowth  of  them.    Many  of  the  so-called 
idols  have  been  merely  fetishes. 

4.  Worship  of  a  Supreme  Being. — While  usually  a  late 


290  Religion  and  Ethics 

development,  the  worship  of  a  supreme,  all-powerful  being 
was  sometimes  found  among  primitive  men.  This  at  first 
took  the  form  of  polytheism,  or  the  worship  of  several 
gods,  but  it  gradually  changed  to  monotheism  through 
the  culling  out  of  the  minor  or  less  important  gods.  Some- 
times this  supreme  being  was  merely  a  mountain,  a  tree, 
or  the  sun,  but  it  stood  out  as  supreme  over  other  deities. 
Gradually  this  belief  became  loftier  and  purer,  the  wor- 
ship of  the  lesser  divinities  being  abandoned.  This  gave 
the  foundation  for  the  highest  form  of  religion  which 
we  have  to-day. 

Each  of  these  beliefs  lays  claim  to  being  the  original 
form  of  religion,  and  with  the  exception  of  fetishism, 
which  was  clearly  the  outgrowth  of  other  forms,  each 
undoubtedly  was  in  some  places  the  original.  But  on  the 
whole  we  must  regard  nature  worship  as  the  lowest  form, 
as  it  is  the  form  generally  found  among  the  most  primitive 
people.  So  we  treat  it  as  the  starting  point  in  our  develop- 
ment of  religion,  although  we  must  make  some  allowance 
for  a  belief  in  life  after  death. 

Characteristics  of  Primitive  Religion.  —  Sacrifices.  — 
When  a  savage  looked  upon  a  god  as  a  person,  he  naturally 
thought  that  the  god  needed  food  and  other  necessities 
of  life;  so  he  offered  them  to  him.  Sometimes  these 
sacrifices  were  destroyed  entirely.  Among  some  tribes  a 
family  might  become  impoverished  by  the  destruction  of 
property  used  up  in  such  sacrifices.  At  other  times  tho 
sacrifices  were  not  destroyed  but  used  again  by  the  people. 
Food  used  as  an  offering  seldom  was  wasted.  In  countries 
where  cannibalism  was,  or  had  been,  practiced  these  sac- 
rifices might  take  the  form  of  human  beings,  generally 
slaves  or  children.  Hindu  mothers  even  to-day  frequently 
throw  their  babies  into  the  Ganges  as  offerings.  The  early 
Greeks  before  starting  upon  a  great  expedition  would 
sacrifice  a  beautiful  girl,  and  the  Spartans  allowed  their 
children  to  be  flogged  to  death  before  the  temple  of 
Diana.  The  sacrifice  of  animals  succeeded  human  sacrifice, 
and  has  always  been  the  most  general  type  of  offering. 
In  this  way,  especially  among  the  Jews,  sacrifices  took 


Religion  and  Ethics  •    291 

the  nature  of  a  sign  of  atonement  for  sins,  or  as  a  means 
of  warding  off  punishment. 

Prayer. — Prayer  is  the  normal  method  of  appealing  to 
a  god  and  is  a  natural  feature  of  religion,  particularly 
of  fetish  worship.  Prayer  is  the  logical  attendant  of 
sacrifices ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  method  of  telling  what  is  the 
object  of  making  the  sacrifice;  it  states  the  request  that 
is  made  of  the  god.  While  to  some  extent  present  in 
most  religions,  its  importance  increases  with  the  rise  of 
the  religion. 

Sacredness. — Because  of  the  religious  association,  objects 
connected  with  worship  attain  an  air  of  sacredness,  es- 
pecially the  fetishes,  temples  and  places  of  worship.  Any 
object  or  ceremony  or  service  connected  with  religion 
becomes  invested  with  sacredness.  This  still  continues, 
and  at  times  has  become  more  pronounced  with  the 
progress  of  religion. 

Magic. — Vitally  related  to  and  infinitely  confused  with 
early  religion  was  magic.  Professor  Thomas  takes  the 
view  that  magic  with  the  savage  is  of  higher  importance 
than  religion,  because  it  assumes  a  scientific  attitude  in 
that  it  is  the  attempt  to  explain  things,  thus  becoming 
the  forerunner  of  modern  science.  In  nearly  every  tribe 
there  was  some  person  or  persons  similar  to  the  medicine 
men  of  the  American  Indians,  whose  function  was  to 
interpret  signs,  foretell  the  future,  exercise  power  over 
the  spirits,  either  in  warding  off  calamity  or  in  bringing 
things  desired,  cure  the  sick,  and  do  those  things  which 
were  beyond  the  power  of  the  average  man.  In  perform- 
ing these  duties  this  person — the  witch  doctor — resorted  to 
magic.  In  this  way  magic  along  with  superstition  played 
quite  an  important  part  in  primitive  religion.  As  the 
religion  became  elevated,  it  gradually  purged  itself  of 
these  impurities,  although  most  religions  are  not  yet 
entirely  clear  of  them. 

Importance  of  Primitive  Religion. — Formerly  religion 
was  of  greater  social  importance  than  it  is  to-day ;  it  was 
not  necessarily  more  vital  to  civilization,  but  it  absorbed 
more  of  the  life  of  the  savage.  With  him  religion  entered 


292  Religion  and  Ethics 

into  every  act  of  life.  The  gods  had  to  be  consulted 
before  any  important  event  took  place,  even  after  the 
state  of  savagery  was  passed.  The  Romans  would  never 
undertake  any  war  or  military  expedition  or  engage  in 
any  battle  unless  the  signs  were  favorable.  The  king  or 
chief  was  also  high  priest  at  first,  and,  as  we  noticed 
in  the  last  chapter,  church  and  state  were  one;  it  was 
not  until  very  recent  times  that  they  became  separated. 
Religion  was  a  tribal  affair,  and  every  member  of  the 
tribe  not  only  adopted  the  religion  of  the  tribe,  but  took 
his  or  her  part  in  the  services  or  ceremonies.  Religious 
dances  formed  an  important  feature  in  religion,  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  dance  played  an  important  part 
in  all  phases  of  the  life  of  the  savage.  Religious  feasts 
were  held  in  times  of  harvest,  and  on  other  special  occa- 
sions. 

The  moral  effect  of  religion  was  chiefly  in  the  way  of 
producing  tribal  solidarity,  and  in  restraining  the  ten- 
dencies to  excess.  It  would  tolerate  those  things  which 
were  of  help  to  the  tribe,  and  forbid  those  things  which 
were  injurious.  It  developed  tribal  loyalty,  obedience  to 
the  chief,  observance  of  tribal  customs,  and  submergence 
of  individual  interests  to  tribal  interests.  In  practice  it 
acted  as  a  strong  conservative  force,  checking  and  dis- 
couraging individual  initiative  and  independence.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  was  a  hindrance  to  reform  and  gave  little 
chance  for  original  thinking;  in  fact  it  discouraged  it. 
This  unfortunately  is  a  tendency  which  all  religions  have 
too  strictly  fostered;  it  is  one  which  we  are  even  to  this 
day  struggling  to  overcome.  While  primitive  religion  held 
the  individual  from  excesses,  it  often  was  an  impediment 
to  progress. 

Before  we  can  get  a  really  good  picture  of  the  evolution 
of  religion,  we  must  consider  the  development  of  national 
religions  and  take  up  a  study  of  the  leading  religions  of 
to-day,  not  so  much  from  a  theological  as  from  a  historical 
standpoint. 

The  Growth  of  National  Religion  From  Tribal  Religion. 
— As  one  god  became  more  important,  its  worship  spread, 


Religion  and  Ethics  293 

and  because  of  some  superior  appeal  to  the  people  it  came 
into  greater  popularity.  Although  each  tribe  tended  to 
keep  its  own  objects  of  worship,  unless  it  was  conquered 
by  some  other  tribes,  the  gods  of  the  stronger  and  more 
important  tribes  began  to  supplant  the  gods  of  the  weaker 
peoples  because  of  the  greater  confidence  reposed  in  them. 
The  religion  which  appealed  to  the  primitive  mind  tended 
to  survive,  but  as  man  began  to  mount  higher  and  higher 
in  the  scale  of  civilization,  the  religions  which  had  higher 
conceptions  of  divinity  and  were  loftier  in  their  teachings 
grew  at  the  expense  of  the  lower  and  inferior.  Also  the 
religions  which  were  detrimental  to  the  group,  such  as 
those  permitting  or  demanding  human  sacrifices,  thus 
either  killing  off  their  own  population  directly,  or  in- 
directly by  fighting  for  captives  to  offer  as  sacrifices, 
were  weeded  out.  The  tribes  which  had  such  religions 
lost  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  of  course  their 
religions  crumbled  with  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
religions  which  stood  for  customs  and  habits  advantageous 
to  the  group,  as  for  instance  those  advocating  monogamy, 
and  good  treatment  of  women  and  opposing  infanticide 
and  slavery,  increased  in  strength,  because  their  groups 
increased  in  numbers  and  power.  In  this  way  the  higher 
religions  logically  supplanted  the  lower.  Then  as  tribes 
became  more  powerful,  they  compelled  other  tribes  to 
adopt  their  gods,  either  by  force  of  arms  or  by  example. 
The  weaker  tribes  were  generally  wdlling  to  do  so,  because 
they  wanted  the  favor  of  what  they  considered  to  be  more 
powerful  gods.  Thus  national  religion  supplanted  tribal 
religion;  it  was  simply  the  enlarging  of  the  scope  and 
territory  of  the  beliefs  which  were  superior.  Then,  too, 
by  coming  into  contact  with  other  religions  even  these 
superior  religions  improved,  adopting  in  many  cases  the 
strong  features  of  the  rival  beliefs.  Hence  as  their  scope 
and  power  increased,  the  religions  themselves  became 
more  elevated. 

The  Religions  of  Early  Babylon  and  Egypt. — Of  the 
three  seats  of  early  culture,  Chaldea  (or  Early  Babylon), 
Egypt,  and  China,  Chaldea  was  in  all  probability  not  only, 


294  Religion  and  Ethics 

the  earliest  but  the  center  from  which  the  other  two 
spread  out.  Other  peoples,  especially  the  Hebrews,  bor- 
rowed heavily  from  Early  Babylon,  the  Jewish  Legal 
Code  being  traced  back  in  many  particulars  to  the  Code 
of  Hammurabi,  which  antedated  the  laws  of  the  Jews  by 
many  centuries.  The  people  of  Early  Babylon  were  cos- 
mopolitan ;  in  fact,  Hammurabi,  the  first  great  king,  ruled 
a  collection  of  many  peoples,  who  spoke  many  tongues. 
As  a  consequence  their  religion  was  not  a  pure  religion 
but  a  mixture  of  many  beliefs.  There  was  a  belief  in 
spirits;  the  world  was  thought  to  be  full  of  such  spirits, 
which  could  be  controlled  only  by  means  of  charms  and 
magic.  These  spirits  were  supposed  to  be  responsible  for 
all  pain  and  disease  as  well  as  misfortune ;  thus  the  cruelty 
and  superstition  of  the  Babylonians  are  partially  ac- 
counted for.  Nature  worship  was  also  interwoven  into 
the  spirit  worship.  There  was  a  vast  number  of  gods, 
both  great  and  minor,  the  worship  of  one  predominating 
in  one  city,  and  that  of  another  in  another  city;  hence 
there  was  no  common  system.  Most  of  the  gods  were 
represented  by  animal  emblems.  The  religion  was  too 
complicated  to  develop  into  a  real  state  religion.  While 
the  higher  religion  of  Babylon  took  the  form  of  worship 
of  a  human  overlord,  who  controlled  the  destinies  of  man, 
it  never  fully  drove  out  the  old  belief  in  spirits  and  never 
stopped  the  making  of  sacrifices  to  them.  Although  it 
was  a  confusion  of  beliefs,  with  many  cults,  and  never 
came  near  to  monotheism,  the  religion  of  Babylon  was 
an  advance  from  the  previous  timid  trafficking  with  spirits 
through  fear,  toward  the  service  of  gods  which  were 
looked  upon  as  friends  of  man.  When  Babylon  was 
absorbed  into  the  Persian  Empire,  it  lost  its  religion, 
which  was  not  sufficiently  developed  to  survive. 

Egypt  is  a  country  which  has  always  been  surrounded 
by  an  air  of  veneration  and  mystery,  even  before  the 
Hebrews  went  to  live  there,  for  the  Shepherd  Kings,  who 
reigned  at  that  time,  overthrew  a  still  older  civilization. 
Part  of  this  civilization  consisted  of  a  religion  which  was 
elaborately  worked  out — a  religion  which  was  a  combina- 


Religion  and  Ethics  295 

tion  of  many  faiths  and  the  product  of  many  forces,  for 
Egypt  had  been  conquered  many  times,  and  each  conquest 
had  left  its  impress.  The  earliest  religion  which  we  can 
find  in  Egypt  was  the  resultant  of  many  still  earlier 
religions.  It  contained  remnants  of  animal  worship,  as 
illustrated  by  the  enormous  temples  which  were  erected 
to  sacred  animals,  particularly  the  ibis,  cow,  and  cat,  and 
by  the  fact  that  those  animals  were  sacred  in  the  prov- 
inces in  which  they  were  worshiped.  Alongside  of  this  was 
the  worship  of  higher  gods,  such  as  the  sun,  moon,  and 
sky.  Chief  among  these  gods  was  Ra,  meaning  "sun," 
who  was  supposed  to  be  a  kindly  old  king  and  warrior, 
who  guided  the  soul  through  the  underworld,  of  which 
he  was  also  lord,  and  around  whose  figure  was  interwoven 
a  great  deal  of  mythology.  There  was  a  family  of  gods 
similar  to  the  Greek  family  of  gods,  consisting  of  Osiris, 
the  sun  god  of  Abydos,  his  wife  and  sister,  Isis,  and 
brother,  Set.  While  Osiris  was  the  embodiment  of  light 
and  purity,  Set  was  supposed  to  represent  the  opposite; 
he  was  the  embodiment  of  all  evil,  particularly  the  desert, 
darkness,  the  hot  south  wind,  sickness,  and,  what  seems 
strange  to  us,  red  hair.  Between  Osiris  and  Set  there 
was  constant  hostility,  and  we  have  the  story  of  the  death 
of  Osiris,  the  search  for  the  body  by  Iris,  and  the  aveng- 
ing of  the  death  by  the  son,  Horus.  While  by  no  means 
monotheistic,  Egyptian  religion  approached  monotheism 
through  the  survival  of  the  stronger  gods  and  the  pre- 
dominance of  one  god  in  each  city  or  province.  Each 
place  had  its  own  favorite  god  and  attempted  to  make 
that  god  supreme,  but  there  was  no  unity  of  belief  in 
any  particular  one,  although  all  the  gods  were  apparently 
sun  gods;  therefore  Egyptian  religion  tended  to  forms 
of  sun  worship. 

Egyptian  temples  were  residences  of  the  gods,  rather 
than  places  of  worship,  images  being  placed  in  the  tem- 
ples so  that  the  gods  might  enter  them.  The  worship  of 
the  gods  was  celebrated  by  great  festivals  and  parades, 
worship  being  a  public  rather  than  a  private  function. 
The  kings  were  supposed  to  have  descended  from  the 


296  Religion  and  Ethics 

gods,  and  it  was  one  of  their  chief  cares  to  erect  stately 
dwellings  for  the  deities. 

Egyptian  religion  included  a  belief  in  future  existence. 
This  conviction  motivated  the  care  of  the  dead  by  means 
of  embalming  the  body,  and  inspired  the  prevailing  idea 
of  the  duty  of  marrying  in  order  to  bring  into  the  world 
children  who  would  pay  the  necessary  attention  to  the 
body  after  death.  The  pyramids  were  erected  as  tombs 
for  the  kings.  The  belief  was  that  the  soul  accompanied 
the  sun  god  to  the  underworld,  where  its  lot  depended 
upon  how  its  possessor  had  lived  or  had  treated  the  god 
during  life.  "While  Egyptian  religion  was  an  advance 
over  what  had  preceded,  it  showed  possibilities  of  becom- 
ing a  pure  spiritual  faith,  and  embodied  in  it  many  ideas 
of  correct  living  and  of  duty  to  neighbors,  it  became 
degenerate  and  corrupt  with  the  decay  of  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion and  the  crumbling  of  that  nation  as  a  political  state. 
Reliance  upon  magic  increased,  pantheistic  beliefs  grew 
in  importance,  and  the  priesthood  became  corrupt,  despotic 
and  oppressive.  "While  it  undoubtedly  contributed  some- 
what to  subsequent  religions,  its  influence  was  nothing  in 
comparison  with  that  of  other  nations,  particularly  the 
Jews. 

Both  the  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  cults  show  how 
religions  develop  through  the  coming  together  of  many 
religions.  In  the  attempt  to  obtain  a  centralized  worship 
the  religion  thrives,  grows  purer,  flourishes,  and  later 
declines  and  gives  way  to  a  loftier  religion.  The  Baby- 
lonian and  Egyptian  religions  were  too  cold  and  forma\ 
to  become  great,  although  they  exerted  some  influence 
upon  the  development  of  other  religious  beliefs. 

The  Religions  of  Ancient  Greece  and  Rome. — The  reli- 
gion of  Greece  passed  through  the  same  stages  as  other 
religions;  however,  because  of  the  high  state  of  culture 
attained,  the  rapid  growth  of  civilization,  and  the  favor- 
able environment,  which  stimulated  the  imagination  and 
the  philosophical  and  religious  development,  it  developed 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  religions  of  other  countries. 
The  early  history  of  Greece  is  so  much  interwoven  with 


Religion  and  Ethics  297 

mythology  and  intermingles  to  such  an  extent  the  acts 
of  men  and  of  gods,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  separate 
fact  from  fiction.  While  nature  and  spirit  worship  at 
one  time  existed  in  Greece,  they  were  early  abandoned. 
The  gods  were  functional  gods  and  had  distinctly  human 
attributes;  not  only  were  they  thought  of  as  having 
human  bodies,  but  were  idealized  as  the  perfection 
of  the  human  form.  They  had  not  only  human  bodies 
but  even  human  passions;  they  hated,  loved,  were  jealous, 
and  even  stole  like  human  beings,  despite  the  belief  that 
they  were  endowed  with  superhuman  powers.  The  Greek 
gods  formed  a  family,  Zeus  being  the  father  and  Hera 
the  mother.  The  number  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  in- 
creased without  limit.  The  Athenians  after  establishing 
a  vast  number  of  temples  and  shrines,  erected  one  to  the 
" unknown  god"  for  fear  that  they  had  omitted  one. 
Each  city  had  its  patron  god  or  goddess ;  also  each  divinity 
represented  a  particular  function. 

With  Greek  religion  went  a  belief  in  a  future  world 
inhabited  by  spirits  who  received  rewards  or  punishments, 
particularly  the  latter.  Perhaps  the  greatest  effect  of 
Greek  religion  was  the  inspiration  it  gave  to  art,  espe- 
cially sculpture  and  poetry.  The  religious  festivals  and 
games  offered  an  incentive  to  physical  development. 
While  the  gods  were  supposed  to  be  guardians  of  justice, 
righting  wrongs  and  meting  out  punishments  in  both 
this  and  the  future  world,  and  in  this  way  to  hold  men  in 
restraint  through  fear  of  punishment,  the  moral  effect 
was  almost  negligible,  for  the  gods  represented  the  pre- 
vailing standards  of  morals.  The  gods  were  not  distinctly 
good  or  bad;  they  even  quarreled  among  themselves; 
but  they  were  called  upon  in  time  of  need  or  danger. 
The  Greek  religion  did  not  hold  out  a  goal  to  be  attained, 
such  as  the  Nirvana  of  Buddhism  or  the  Heaven  of 
Christianity.  It  did,  however  prepare  the  way  for  Chris- 
tianity, which  easily  supplanted  the  Greek  religion  when 
the  early  Christian  apostles  preached  the  new  faith. 

Home  offers  perhaps  the  best  example  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest  in  regard  to  religion.  Early  Roman  religion 


298  Religion  and  Ethics 

was  animistic,  there  being  no  real  gods  but  a  host  of 
spirits,  which  dwelt  in  nature.  These  nature  spirits  were 
worshiped  or  appealed  to,  not  from  a  feeling  of  love  but 
in  a  sense  of  bargaining  or  contract,  sacrifices  and  worship 
being  given  in  exchange  for  protection  and  help.  There 
was  the  worship  of  the  Lares,  or  household  gods,  who 
were  the  spirits  of  the  ancestors,  to  whom  prayers  and 
offerings  were  made,  because  they  were  supposed  to  give 
or  withhold  prosperity.  This  led  to  the  introduction  of 
the  worship  of  deified  persons,  like  Romulus  and  later 
Julius  Caesar,  which  worship  was  added  to  the  previous 
religion.  Roman  religion  became  a  part  of  the  state,  no 
war  or  enterprise  being  undertaken  without  consulting 
the  gods  and  then  not  carried  out  unless  the  omens  were 
favorable. 

The  religion  was  so  complicated  that  it  required  a 
priestly  class  to  interpret  the  will  of  the  gods  or  the 
wishes  of  the  spirits,  a  thing  which  they  did  by  examin- 
ing the  entrails  of  animals  offered  as  sacrifices  and  by 
interpreting  the  flights  of  birds.  Instead  of  suppressing 
or  ridiculing  the  beliefs  of  the  peoples  whom  they  con- 
quered, the  Romans  respected  them,  looking  upon  their 
gods  as  real  beings  with  whom  they  themselves  wished 
to  be  on  good  terms,  and  taking  the  attitude  of  toleration, 
instead  of  contempt  or  a  desire  for  suppression  which 
most  conquering  nations  up  to  this  time  had  exhibited. 
When  Greece  was  reached  and  later  conquered,  the 
Romans  took  over  almost  entirely  the  Greek  worship, 
especially  their  conception  of  the  gods,  only  giving  the 
Greek  gods  and  goddesses  Latin  names,  and  carried  out 
their  worship  to  such  an  extent  that  many  people  think 
of  the  Roman  religion  merely  as  an  outgrowth  of  Greek 
religion. 

This  principle  of  toleration  was  abandoned  after 
Christianity  invaded  Italy  and  threatened  to  supplant 
the  former  worship.  Then  the  government  attempted  to 
stamp  out  Christianity  by  persecution,  but  in  so  doing 
only  spread  it  and  hastened  its  final  adoption  by  the 
entire  population.  Thus  through  competition  the  best 


Religion  and  Ethics  299 

elements  of  the  different  religions  survived  until  finally 
Christianity  won  the  supremacy  over  all  competitors  and 
became  the  dominant  religion.  Increasing  in  force  after 
the  fall  of  Rome  as  a  world  power,  it  became  incorporated 
into  the  state  and  ruled  Europe  for  a  long  time  politically, 
socially,  morally,  and  religiously  through  the  Catholic 
Church,  which  later  split  into  the  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholic  Churches. 

The  Great  World  Religions  of  To-day. — This  constant 
evolution  of  religion  is  to  be  observed  among  the  religions 
of  to-day  as  well  as  among  those  of  antiquity,  for  its 
progress  still  continues.  The  religions  which  serve  and 
aid  mankind  the  most  are  the  ones  which  are  increasing 
and  which  are  supplanting  those  that  do  not  fulfill  such 
functions.  While  there  are  many  religions  in  the  world, 
five  stand  out  above  all  others,  not  only  in  the  number 
of  adherents  but  in  their  social  influence.  In  order  to 
complete  our  study  of  the  evolution  of  religion,  we  must 
take  a  brief  glance  at  the  essential  features  of  Confucian- 
ism, Brahmanism,  Buddhism,  Mohammedanism,  and 
Christianity,  taking  them  up  according  to  their  rank  in 
social  importance  and  development,  although  this  does 
not  accord  completely  with  the  chronological  order  of 
their  origin. 

1.  Confucianism. — The  most  influential  of  the  three 
religions  of  China — Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Buddhism 
— Confucianism  is  an  integral  part  of  Chinese  civilization, 
which  has  been  looking  backward  for  centuries.  While 
named  after  Confucius,  a  Chinese  sage  and  philosopher 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  from  550  to  478  B.  C.,  it 
antedated  him  by  many  centuries,  for  Confucius  was  chiefly 
a  collector  and  preserver  of  the  wisdom  of  the  past,  al- 
though he  did  add  somewhat  to  it.  He  collected  this 
knowledge  and  handed  it  down  in  written  form,  of  which 
there  are  now  preserved  five  or  six  books.  To  those  books 
is  added  a  second  set  of  classics  edited  by  disciples  of 
Confucius,  especially  Mencius,  which  are  supposed  to  con- 
tain teachings  of  Confucius.  The  worship  of  Confucius 
.himself  is  the  chief  addition  to  the  worship  of  the  time 


300  Religion  and  Ethics 

prior  to  him.  Confucianism  in  reality  is  not  much  of  a 
religion  according  to  our  conception  of  religion,  being  more 
a  system  of  philosophy.  There  is  nothing  cruel  or  revolt- 
ing or  degrading  in  the  worship,  no  mythology,  no  idols, 
no  priestly  class.  Everything  is  dignified  and  well 
arranged.  It  is  essentially  a  religion  of  form,  in  which 
doctrine  counts  for  very  little  and  action  is  not  governed 
by  any  code  of  ethics.  The  main  thing  is  to  do  the  proper 
thing  at  the  proper  time  in  the  proper  way. 

The  objects  of  worship  are  of  three  classes:  (a)  heaven, 
the  principal  Chinese  deity,  by  which  is  meant  the  sky — 
the  blue  air — which  is  conceived  of  as  a  living  force,  and 
worshiped  for  itself  and  not  as  the  residence  of  some 
other  power;  (6)  the  spirits,  all  good,  generally  spoken  of 
in  the  plural  sense,  there  being  one  for  each  object  of 
nature,  and  conceived  of,  not  as  moving  around,  but  as 
being  organized  into  a  priesthood,  and  worshiped  in  a 
body;  (c)  ancestors,  the  worship  of  whom  is  the  prescribed 
working  religion  of  each  individual.  Belief  in  the  future 
world  is  centered  in  the  idea  of  the  continuation  of  the 
family;  it  is  thought  to  be  the  duty  of  everybody  to 
marry  and  rear  descendants  in  order  to  carry  on  this 
worship.  Tablets  are  placed  in  the  home  to  the  memory 
of  these  ancestors;  and  to  these  tablets  the  spirits  of  the 
ancestors  are  supposed  to  come  when  properly  invoked. 
The  emperor  must  sacrifice  to  all  the  emperors  who  pre- 
ceded him,  and  the  magistrates  to  all  who  have  held  the 
office  before  them.  This  homage  is  given,  not  for  the 
sake  of  peace  or  aid,  but  because  of  gratitude  and  devo- 
tion. The  person  offering  sacrifices  prays  to  be  worthy 
of  offering  them.  There  is  no  self-humiliation,  for  the 
Chinese  take  their  religion  complacently. 

Under  Confucianism  religion  is  not  separated  from 
daily  life ;  it  is  a  ritual  fixed  by  tradition  and  carried  out 
by  custom  and  habit.  As  taught  by  Confucius  religion' 
becomes  a  theory  of  government  and  morals.  In  the  way 
of  social  influence  Confucianism  is  largely  responsible  for 
the  complacence  of  the  Chinese ;  it  is  one  of  the  causes  of 
the  backwardness  of  China.  Closely  akin  to  Confucianism 


Religion  and  Ethics  301 

is  Taoism,  a  cult  founded  by  Lao-tsze,  which  in  its  early 
days  consisted  of  a  higher  code  of  morals  and  self- 
discipline  than  Confucianism.  It  degenerated,  however, 
into  magic  and,  while  it  later  borrowed  the  apparatus  of 
religion  from  Buddhism  and  became  recognized,  it  has 
never  obtained  a  vital  hold  upon  the  people.  Confu- 
cianism never  grappled  with  the  social  problems  of  the 
day  or  attempted  to  reform  things;  it  has  merely  tried 
to  hold  them  as  they  were.  Its  effect  has  been  to  keep 
its  adherents  from  advancing.  Unlike  many  religions  it 
has  not  degenerated  or  become  corrupt,  but  has  remained 
much  the  same  as  it  was  two  thousand  years  ago — it  has 
neither  advanced  nor  degenerated. 

2.  Bralimanism. — Brahmanism  is  the  direct  outgrowth 
of  the  anterior  Vedic  religion,  which  was  brought  into 
India  by  her  conquerors.  The  Vedic  religion  was  an 
advance  over  the  previous  faith  of  Babylon,  but  was  a 
combination  of  spirit  and  nature  worship.  It  went  further 
in  its  approach  to  monotheism  by  making  one  god  at  a 
time  supreme,  each  one  in  turn  becoming  dominant.  All 
the  gods  were  supposed  to  represent  various  manifesta- 
tions of  one  supreme  being.  It  had  risen  beyond  the 
worship  of  idols  or  fetishes,  thus  producing  higher  con- 
ceptions than  had  formerly  prevailed.  Upon  this  Vedic 
faith  was  based  Brahmanism,  which  cast  aside  the  old 
ideas  of  nature  worship  in  favor  of  an  inward  subjective 
religious  attitude.  New  gods  were  introduced,  chief  of 
whom  is  Brahma,  who  is  also  the  head  of  a  trinity  con- 
sisting of  Brahma,  the  creator,  Vishnu,  the  preserver, 
and  Siva,  the  destroyer.  The  conception  of  Brahma  is 
not  unlike  our  idea  of  Jehovah ;  he  is  not  only  an  external 
deity,  but  is  also  present  in  one's  own  experience.  But 
while  Christianity  teaches  that  we  serve  God  by  serving 
our  fellow-men,  Brahmanism  teaches  that  this  is  done  by 
getting  away  from  mankind,  by  isolation  and  separation 
of  self  from  the  sin  of  the  world.  There  is  no  distinction 
between  good  and  bad  works,  for  to  be  holy  one  must 
keep  clear  from  all  that  degrades  or  confuses.  Salvation 
is  a  matter  of  individual  concern,  there  being  no  desire 


302  Religion  and  Ethics 

to  spread  the  light  or  to  save  others.    Religion  is  gained 
through  isolation;  to  be  holy  one  must  be  alone. 

Connected  with  Brahmanism  are  sacred  books,  includ- 
ing the  sacred  Vedic  literature,  supposedly  inspired  writ- 
ings, hymns,  treatises  and  law  books;  there  are  also  the 
famous  laws  of  Manu,  compiled  about  2000  B.  C.,  a  col- 
lection of  rules  designed  to  govern  the  entire  Hindu 
population.  There  is  also  required  of  the  Brahmans  a 
complicated  system  of  sacrifices,  which  have  become  a 
matter  of  form.  The  social  effects  have  been  great,  but 
since  only  the  individual  is  concerned,  group  morality 
has  not  been  fostered.  Brahmanism  has  not  attempted  to 
relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  people  or  lay  hold  of  the 
problems  of  society.  It  has  allowed  the  people  of  India 
to  live  in  poverty  and  misery;  it  has  made  no  attempt 
to  break  down  the  caste  system,  but  on  the  contrary  has 
upheld  it,  because  the  priestly  class  are  on  top  of  the 
social  pyramid.  Neither  has  it  attempted  to  elevate  the 
position  of  woman;  it  has  held  her  down.  These  failures 
indicate  its  great  weakness,  because  a  religion  to  be  suc- 
cessful must  aid  humanity.  Brahmanism  has  not  done  it. 
Its  key-note  is  isolation  and  self-salvation.  It  has,  how- 
ever, paved  the  way  for  Buddhism,  which  was  an  out- 
growth of  it  and  which  is  the  culmination  of  Indian 
religion. 

3.  Buddhism. — Although  it  originated  in  India,  Bud- 
dhism was  banished  from  that  country  and  is  now  extinct 
there.  It  is  found  in  China,  Japan,  Tibet,  Java,  Sumatra, 
Siam,  Burmah,  and  Ceylon  and  is  divided  into  northern 
and  southern  branches.  While  considered  a  revolt  from 
Brahmanism;  it  is  simply  the  evolution  of  Brahmanism 
into  a  higher  form. 

Buddhism  is  a  religion  without  a  god,  without  prayer, 
without  a  priesthood,  without  worship.  It  is  a  religion 
which  owes  its  success  not  to  its  theology  or  to  its  ritual, 
for  it  has  neither,  but  to  its  moral  sentiment  and  to  its 
external  organization.  The  term  "Buddha"  means  the  En- 
lightened One  or  the  Enlightened;  there  were  supposed 
to  have  been  twenty-four  of  these  Enlightened  Ones  be- 


Religion  and  Ethics  303 

fore  Gautama,  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  appeared.  They; 
were  human  but  were  supposed  to  have  reached  a  super- 
human condition  by  passing  through  periods  of  renuncia- 
tion and  of  compassion  for  man's  suffering  and  to  have 
entered  human  life  and  borne  the  burden  of  man's  suffer- 
ing. It  is  not  negative  like  Brahmanism,  but  positive  and 
constructive.  One  achieves  happiness  through  a  life  of 
right  living;  thus  the  religion  has  an  extremely  high 
code  of  morals  and  ethics.  It  offers  Nirvana,  a  place  of 
salvation,  the  Heaven  of  Buddhism;  Nirvana,  a  place  of 
liberation  and  freedom,  which  one  can  reach  even  before 
death.  The  way  of  reaching  it  is  by  a  life  of  self-renuncia- 
tion and  by  suppression  of  the  desires  and  passions. 
Under  Buddhist  morality,  which  includes  equality 
towards  all  and  respect  for  all  living  beings,  are  five 
rules  of  righteousness,  which  resemble  the  ten  command- 
ments; they  are  binding  on  all  followers  of  Buddha. 
These  are:  (1)  not  to  kill  any  living  being;  (2)  not 
to  take  that  which  is  not  given;  (3)  to  refrain  from 
adultery;  (4)  to  speak  no  untruth;  and  (5)  to  abstain 
from  all  intoxicating  liquors.  Devout  members  add  the 
following:  (1)  not  to  eat  after  mid-day;  (2)  not  to  be 
present  at  dancing,  singing,  the  playing  of  music,  or  act- 
ing; (3)  not  to  use  wreaths,  ointments,  scents,  or  personal 
ornaments ;  (4)  not  to  use  a  high  or  a  broad  bed ;  and  (5) 
to  possess  no , silver  or  gold. 

Because  there  is  no  god,  prayers,  or  sacrifices,  priests 
are  unnecessary.  Man  must  save  himself  by  his  own 
efforts.  While  under  Buddhism  there  are  no  priests, 
there  are  wanderers  who  leave  home  and  travel  about, 
teaching  and  practicing  the  religion.  They  resemble  the 
monks  and  friars  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Buddhism  became  marvelously  popular  because  of  its 
simplicity,  morality  and  broad  humanity.  But  because 
of  its  openness  and  freedom  it  has  degenerated,  becoming 
contaminated  with  magic  and  superstition  in  every  land 
where  it  has  gone.  It  was  too  lofty  to  be  appreciated, 
and  therefore  was  not  suitable  as  a  working  religion  to 
the  people  with  whom  it  dealt.  While  a  lofty  religion, 


304  Religion  and  Ethics 

Buddhism  even  at  its  best  is  a  sad  religion,  regarding 
human  life  as  evil.  While  having  deep  compassion  for 
the  sufferings  of  man,  it  has  taken  no  means  of  reform- 
ing the  world,  concerning  itself  only  with  winning  indi- 
vidual adherents;  so  it  has  had  little  social  effect, 
although  it  has  not  been  reactionary  as  Brahmanism  has 
been.  On  the  whole  it  is  an  exceedingly  free  religion, 
allowing  its  followers  to  worship  as  they  see  fit  or  not  to 
worship  at  all.  In  loftiness  it  is  probably  next  to  Chris- 
tianity, with  which  it  is  competing  for  supremacy  in  the 
East. 

4.  Mohammedanism. — In  point  of  time  Mohammedanism 
is  the  last  of  the  great  religions,  appearing  six  centuries 
after  Christianity,  and  incorporating  many  of  the  Chris- 
tian ideals;  but  it  borrowed  still  more  from  Judaism, 
which  it  closely  resembles.  It  was  founded  in  Arabia  by 
Mohammed  or  Mahomet,  who  was  born  about  A.  D.  570. 
Arabia  is  a  desert  country  and  is  inhabited  by  wandering 
tribes,  who  are  held  together  by  ties  of  kinship.  At  the 
time  of  Mohammed,  Arabia  had  no  settled  religion,  but 
there  was  a  confusion  of  nature  and  spirit  worship,  each 
tribe  having  its  own  beliefs.  The  people  generally  did 
not  believe  in  many  gods,  especially  the  minor  ones;  so 
the  country  was  ready  for  a  new  religion.  Both  Judaism 
and  Christianity  were  known  and  respected  in  Arabia, 
but  were  not  adopted  to  any  extent  because  of  the  wide- 
spread dislike  of  the  Hebrews,  who  were  unpopular  be- 
cause of  their  pride,  exclusiveness,  and  success  as  money 
lenders.  Mohammed  had  traveled  much  and  thus  had 
come  into  contact  with  both  of  these  religions ;  also  while 
herding  sheep  he  had  had  opportunity  for  meditation  and 
study.  When  he  first  started  out  to  teach,  he  was  rejected 
and  ridiculed  at  Mecca,  but  he  was  later  accepted  and 
even  welcomed  at  Medina,  a  more  cosmopolitan  place. 
When  he  found  he  could  not  spread  the  faith  to  any 
extent  through  persuasion,  he  adopted  force  and  com- 
pelled all  Arabia  to  adopt  it,  giving  the  choice  of 
accepting  Mohammedanism  or  the  sword.  Naturally 
they  chose  the  religion.  He  also  showed  great  diplomacy^ 


Religion  and  Ethics  305 

and  executive  ability  in  welding  these  tribes  together 
and  adopting  enough  of  their  old  faiths,  especially 
pilgrimages  and  ceremonies,  to  win  their  allegiance. 
After  conquering  Mecca  he  spared  the  city  and  made  it 
his  capital.  Before  his  death  he  started  out  upon  the 
conquest  of  the  world  but  died  before  it  was  well  under 
way,  leaving  his  plans  to  his  followers,  who  carried  them 
out  as  far  as  they  were  able,  sweeping  over  all  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Northern  Africa  and  entering  Europe  by  way 
of  Spain  and  the  Balkans.  They  were  barely  stopped 
from  a  conquest  of  all  Europe  at  the  Battle  of  Tours, 
A.  D.  732. 

Mohammedanism  includes  a  belief  in  one  god,  known 
as  Allah,  and  in  angels,  good  and  bad  spirits,  prophecy, 
revelation,  and  a  resurrection  and  judgment  day,  as  well 
as  a  heaven  and  a  hell.  Allah  is  conceived  of  as  an  all 
powerful  and  just  ruler.  Mohammed  represented  him- 
self as  a  prophet  of  Allah.  "There  is  no  God  but  Allah, 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet!"  was  the  slogan.  Adam, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  and  Jesus  were  also  recognized 
as  prophets.  Hell  is  represented  as  a  place  of  torment 
and  Heaven  as  a  place  of  sensual  pleasure.  In  addition 
to  faith,  prayer,  almsgiving,  fasting,  and  pilgrimages  are 
duties  of  the  Moslem.  Every  believer  must  pray  five 
times  a  day  and  must,  at  least  once  during  his  life-time, 
make  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Drinking  and  gambling 
are  prohibited.  To  wage  holy  war  is  an  obligation.  The 
Koran,  which  closely  resembles  the  Old  Testament,  is  the 
Mohammedan  Bible.  In  reality  this  faith  has  many 
points  of  similarity  to  Judaism,  only  it  is  better  adapted  to 
become  a  world  religion. 

Mohammedanism,  because  of  the  adaptability  of  the 
faith,  the  readiness  of  the  people  for  it,  and  the  ability 
of  its  founder,  has  had  a  growth  which  was  marvelous 
in  its  rapidity.  It  is  spreading  swiftly  to-day  in  Asia 
and  Africa,  being  the  great  rival  of  Christianity  in  Africa 
and  western  Asia ;  and  in  many  lands  it  is  more  success- 
ful than  Christianity,  because  it  is  more  easily  under- 
stood. "While  a  very  advanced  religion,  it  lacks  the  high 


306  Religion  and  Ethics 

morality  of  Buddhism  and  the  warmth  and  love  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  is,  however,  a  wonderful  advance  over  the 
previous  religions  of  the  peoples  who  now  embrace  it,  and 
must  be  counted  as  one  of  the  great  world  religions,  both 
as  to  numbers  and  in  loftiness  of  thought. 

5.  Christianity. — Any  treatment  of  Christianity  should 
be  prefaced  by  one  of  Judaism,  of  which  it  is  an  out- 
growth, but  because  of  lack  of  space  and  general 
familiarity  with  the  principles  of  Judaism — such  a  treat- 
ment may  be  omitted.  At  the  time  of  the  coming  of 
Christ,  Judaism  had  become  hardened  into  mere  formality 
and  needed  rejuvenation.  Christianity  fulfilled  that  need 
by  replacing  the  religion  of  form  by  one  of  love. 

Christianity  is  not  a  religion  of  fear — although  many 
have  tried  to  make  it  such — but  one  of  inspiration,  one 
which  leads  instead  of  drives.  It  is  not  a  religion  of 
definite  rules  but  one  of  freedom  and  inner  guidance, 
rather  than  of  external  law  or  system.  "When  Christianity 
appeared,  the  world  was  in  need  of  a  higher  religion, 
hence  its  rapid  rise  and  remarkable  influence.  It  later 
became  hardened  into  too  definite  a  system  under  the 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholic  Churches,  and  still  later  under 
many  of  the  Protestant  sects,  perhaps  most  noticeably 
under  the  Puritans  and  the  Church  of  England;  but  its 
constant  trend  is  to  throw  off  the  control  of  individuals 
and  the  opinions  of  a  few,  and  allow  greater  and  greater 
individual  freedom,  especially  in  the  Protestant  denomi- 
nations. There  is  less  quarreling  over  matters  of  opinion 
and  greater  eagerness  to  go  on  to  higher  conceptions  of 
religion  and  wider  fields  of  usefulness.  Because  Chris- 
tianity is  essentially  a  religion  of  freedom,  hope,  and 
love  it  is  best  fitted  to  become  a  universal  religion.  While 
it  is  without  doubt  the  loftiest  religion  and  at  present 
the  greatest  achievement  in  the  evolution  of  religion,  it 
has  not  as  yet  reached  its  highest  development  or  its 
greatest  usefulness,  but  is  constantly  advancing  as  fast 
as  humanity  is  able  to  appreciate  it.2 

1  The  World  Almanac,  1922,  gives  the  following  estimates  as  to  the 


Religion  and  Ethics  307 

Evolution  of  Ethics. — Ethics,  or  the  study  of  morals, 
is  a  separate  science  in  itself  and  has  its  subdivisions, 
like  sociology;  theoretical  ethics  deals  with  the  theory  of 
morals  and  practical  ethics  with  human  conduct.  Soci- 
ology is  closely  connected  with  ethics,  especially  with 
what  is  called  social  ethics;  but  it  is  especially  in  moral 
codes  that  sociology  is  interested;  their  influence  in  con- 
trolling society  and  their  origin  and  development.  We 
take  these  codes  for  granted;  but  they  were  not  always 
so  taken,  and  even  now  they  differ  with  the  time,  place, 
and  condition.  We  have  codes  of  conduct  in  regard  to 
the  handling  of  property,  those  forbidding  stealing,  for 
illustration,  but  our  interpretation  of  just  what  is  steal- 
ing or  immoral  use  of  property  is  constantly  changing. 
We  have  codes  in  regard  to  telling  the  truth,  but  the 
Chinese  and  African  have  different  codes.  Codes  of 
family  morality  have  been  and  are  still  evolving.  Re- 
ligious codes  differ  with  the  religion  and  the  time.  Under 
Puritanism  all  labor  and  recreation  were  forbidden  on 
the  Sabbath,  but  we  are  making  different  codes  in  regard 
to  the  Sabbath  observance.  We  have  codes  in  regard 
to  injury  to  others,  assault  being  forbidden,  for  example. 
We  have  codes  in  regard  to  wearing  clothing,  but  the 
amount  and  nature  differ  with  the  time,  place  and  style. 

We  cannot  here  take  up  a  study  of  these  different 
codes.  We  merely  mention  them  as  part  of  our  social 
evolution.  They  have  not  all  evolved  in  the  same  way, 
being  affected  by  geographical  environment  and  other 
conditions  in  a  manner  similar  to  other  social  institutions. 
Religion  has  been  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  their 

probable  number  of  adherents  to  the  great  religions: 

Confucianists  and  Taoists 310,925,000 

Brahmanists    215,512,000 

Buddhists   140,047,000 

Mohammedans    227,040,000 

Christians    576,000,000 

Roman  Catholics 288,000,000 

Protestants    167,000,000 

Greek  Catholics 121,000,000 

Judaists    14,972,000 

Silntoists    25,015,000 


308  Religion  and  Ethics 

development;  economic  and  industrial  progress  has  also 
conditioned  their  growth.  We  could  neither  develop  codes 
in  regard  to  property  until  there  was  property,  nor  frame 
them  concerning  industrial  organization  till  we  had  that 
organization. 

When  we  take  up  our  study  of  groups  we  shall  find 
that  the  group  condemns  those  things  which  seem  to  be 
disadvantageous  to  it,  and  approves  that  which  seems 
advantageous ;  in  this  way  group  morality  developed.  In 
fact  most  moral  codes  have  developed  as  group  codes. 
Moral  codes  are  never  settled,  for  new  conditions  are 
constantly  creating  new  problems  to  be  solved.  Take 
the  question  of  justice;  every  new  invention  upsets  to 
some  extent  the  existing  code  of  justice,  and  we  must 
adapt  our  code  to  the  new  condition.  In  short,  moral 
codes  are  the  product  of  society  and  are  conditioned  by 
social  progress.  They  also  help  mold  society  and  aid 
or  retard  further  progress.  While  morality  has  its  roots 
in  human  nature,  its  specific  forms  are  determined  by 
conditions  of  society.  Like  other  social  institutions 
morality  is  the  product  of  society* 

BEADING  EEFERENCES 

Religion : 

FRAZER,  J.  G.,  The  Golden  Bough. 

BLACKHAR,  F.  W.  AND  GILLIN,  J.  L.,  Outlines  of  Sociology, 

Part  II,  Chaps.  XII  and  XIII. 
MENZIES,  ALLAN,  History  of  Religion. 
MOORE,  G.  F.,  History  of  Religions. 
STARBUCK,  E.  D.,  Psychology  of  Religion. 
TYLOR,  EDWARD  B.,  Primitive  Culture,  Chaps.  XI-XVII. 
LUBBOCK,  SIR  JOHN,  Origin  of  Civilization,  Chaps.  IV- VI. 
CROZIER,  JOHN  B.,  Civilization  and  Progress,  Part  IV. 
CROZIER,  JOHN  B.,  Religion  of  the  Future. 
JASTROW,  MORRIS,  The  Study  of  Religion. 
SPENCER,   HERBERT,  Principles   of  Sociology,  Vol.   I,   Chaps. 

VIII-XXVI. 
HAYES,  EDWARD  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology, 

Chap.  XXX. 

ORCHARD,  "W.  E.,  The  Outlook  for  Religion. 
RICE,  JOHN  A.,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Life  of  To-day. 


Religion  and  Ethics  309 

Ethics: 

WESTERMABCK,  E.,  Origin  and  Development  of  Moral  Ideas, 

2  Vols. 
SOUTHERL.AND,  A.,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Moral  Instinct, 

2  Vols. 

LECKY,  W.  E.  H.,  History  of  European  Morals,  Vol.  I. 
DEWEY,  JOHN  AND  TUFTS,  J.  H.,  Ethics. 
BLACKMAR,  F.  W.  AND  GILLIN,  J.  L.,  Outlines  of  Sociology, 

Part  II,  Chap.  XI. 
MECKLIN,  JOHN,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics. 


CHAPTER  XV 
EDUCATION 

In  this  chapter  education  will  be  treated  as  an  institu- 
tion of  society,  and  an  attempt  will  be  made  to  outline 
in  a  general  way  its  evolution.  While  a  broad  view  of 
the  subject  will  be  taken,  particular  attention  will  be 
given  to  school  systems  as  representing  in  concrete 
fashion  the  different  forms  of  education. 

Primitive  Education. — Education  in  its  simplest  form 
is  seen  among  primitive  peoples.  There  is  no  school,  and 
education  is  largely  a  matter  of  imitation,  being  to  a 
great  extent  unconscious.  The  purpose  is,  however,  much 
the  same  as  that  recognized  in  our  most  highly  developed 
school  systems — namely,  fitting  the  youth  for  life.  With 
primitive  man  as  with  modern  man,  knowledge  is  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  life.  Primitive  man  must  under- 
stand nature  in  order  to  keep  alive,  and  the  primitive 
child  needs  training  in  the  art  of  obtaining  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter.  He  must  know  how  to  avoid  the  wild 
animals  and  how  to  hunt  or  fish.  In  order  to  progress, 
each  generation  must  profit  by  the  experience  of  the 
preceding  ones. 

While  the  bulk  of  primitive  instruction  comes  through 
observation  and  imitation,  there  are  various  methods  of 
supplying  definite  training  and  instruction.  One  of  the 
best  known  is  the  initiation  ceremony.  Among  most 
primitive  peoples  every  boy  before  entering  upon  the 
duties  and  dignity  of  manhood  is  obliged  to  go  through 
an  initiation.  In  many  tribes  girls  are  compelled  to  per- 
form similar  rites  before  they  are  recognized  as  women. 
This  initiation  generally  comes  during  the  period  of 
puberty  and  lasts  several  days,  sometimes  for  weeks  and 

310 


Education  311 

months.  Often  the  novice  is  obliged  to  go  through  cere- 
monies which  are  symbolic  or  religious.  During  these 
ceremonies  the  youth  is  taught  the  legends  and  history 
of  the  tribe  and  the  significance  of  the  various  celebra- 
tions, songs,  dances,  and  rites.  Instruction  is  given  in 
religion,  also  in  tribal  and  family  duties.  The  importance 
of  the  occasion,  and  of  the  instruction,  is  impressed  upon 
the  mind  of  the  youth  by  the  seriousness  of  the  instruc- 
tors and  the  ceremony  and  dignity  attached  to  the  rites. 
The  life  of  primitive  man  is  as  a  rule  hard,  one  in  which 
he  is  obliged  to  endure  hunger,  cold,  and  pain;  to  fit 
himself  for  this  life  the  youth  is  usually  compelled  to 
pass  rigid  examinations.  He  is  generally  forced  to  endure 
pain  without  flinching;  he  endures  such  tests  as  having 
teeth  knocked  out,  smoking  or  burning  over  a  fire,  and 
flogging.  Frequently  the  boy  carries  to  the  grave  the 
scars  made  during  his  initiation  ceremony.  He  is  often 
required  to  fast  for  a  time,  or  to  procure  his  own  food 
without  assistance;  or  he  may  be  compelled  to  abstain 
from  certain  foods.  So  severe  are  these  initiations  that 
among  some  tribes  it  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  youths 
to  die  under  them.  The  rites  for  girls  are  ordinarily  not 
so  severe,  nor  are  they  carried  out  with  so  great  care, 
because  of  the  lesser  importance  of  females  in  the  eyes 
of  society. 

By  means  of  these  initiations  young  men  are  taught 
obedience  and  respect  for  their  elders.  Also,  much  prac- 
tical instruction  is  given  in  methods  of  capturing  certain 
animals,  in  the  art  of  making  fire,  concerning  the  impor- 
tance of  marriage  and  the  duty  of  providing  for  the 
family.  However,  much  superstition  and  magic  are  also 
taught,  such  as  belief  in  spirits,  and  animal  worship. 
Because  of  this,  primitive  education  has  had  little  prog- 
ressive value  other  than  as  an  adjustment  to  one's 
environment.  It  did  have  value  in  teaching  group 
solidarity,  and  thus  contributed  its  part  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  man  and  the  continuance  of  races.  But  as  society 
advanced  and  the  needs  of  man  changed,  it  gave  way  to 
other  methods  of  instruction. 


312  Education 

Oriental  Education. — Chinese  Education. — The  second 
stage  in  educational  development  has  persisted  almost 
to  the  present  day  in  many  of  the  Oriental  nations,  par- 
ticularly China,  which  continued  its  ancient  system  down 
to  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  "With  the 
Chinese  formal  education  consisted  in  the  mastery  of  lan- 
guage and  literature.  The  Chinese  language  is  ideo- 
graphic and  not  phonetic,  and  as  a  result  there  is  a 
different  character  for  each  idea.  While  the  bulk  of  their 
educational  material  contains  only  about  5000  different 
characters,  it  has  been  estimated  that  exclusive  of 
synonyms  and  obsolete  words  there  are  25,000  characters, 
and  including  all  forms  about  260,000.  These  characters 
have  to  be  memorized.  Chinese  education  consisted  in: 
(1)  the  mastery  of  these  language  forms;  (2)  committing 
to  memory  the  sacred  texts;  and  (3)  the  study  of  com- 
mentaries on  these  texts,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring 
the  sacred  literary  style.  In  carrying  out  this  scheme  of 
education  there  was  a  system  of  schools  which  led  up  to 
and  prepared  for  a  schedule  of  governmental  examina- 
tions. Each  village  or  community  had  its  elementary 
school,  taught  by  some  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
degrees,  or  by  the  holder  of  a  lower  degree  who  was 
without  an  office.  Here  by  a  system  of  imitation  and 
memorizing  the  student  learned  to  read  and  write  the 
different  characters,  although  little  connection  was  made 
between  the  two  processes,  the  child  often  not  knowing 
the  meaning  of  either.  On  account  of  the  poverty  of 
the  people  few  ever  attended  school,  and  of  those  who 
did  attend  only  about  one  in  twenty  ever  managed  to 
pass  beyond  the  elementary  grade.  Above  the  elementary 
schools  the  higher  education  consisted  of  the  memorizing 
of  the  nine  sacred  classics  and  their  commentaries.  For 
those  who  failed  in  the  examinations  or  were  not  success- 
ful in  obtaining  appointment  to  offices — and  most  of  them 
did  fail — education  instead  of  preparing  for  life  unfitted 
them  for  entering  an  ordinary  occupation,  for  to  do  so 
would  have  brought  about  the  loss  of  prestige.  Many 
resorted  to  teaching,  thus  overcrowding  that  occupation. 


Education  313 

The  center  of  the  Chinese  educational  system  was  the 
series  of  three  governmental  examinations  for  degrees 
and  office.  These  examinations  consisted  of  the  writing 
of  verse  and  prose  essays  on  themes  taken  from  sacred 
writings.  From  those  who  passed  the  lower  examinations 
the  minor  governmental  officials  were  chosen,  and  from 
those  who  passed  the  higher  examinations  the  chief  offi- 
cials of  the  empire  were  selected.  A  few  were  selected 
by  a  further  private  examination  before  the  emperor  to 
form  his  cabinet.  The  educational  system  was  the  royal 
road  to  preferment  and  advance.  Each  degree  brought 
its  own  reward,  as  well  as  the  opening  up  of  an  oppor- 
tunity to  advance  still  higher.  Because  of  this  fact  many1 
spent  their  entire  lives  in  the  endeavor  to  pass  these 
examinations.  The  whole  educational  system  conduced 
to  this  end. 

The  Chinese  method  was  memory  and  imitation.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  develop  originality  or  creative 
power ;  these  were  suppressed.  Now,  however,  this  whole 
system  is  rapidly  being  replaced  by  Western  methods. 
While  it  preserved  the  past,  it  stifled  progress  and  was 
largely  responsible  for  holding  China  back  from  advance- 
ment. 

Hindu  Education. — Quite  similar  to  the  education  of 
China  was  that  of  India.  There  education  was  based 
upon  the  sacred  Vedic  literature  and  training  in  the  laws 
and  traditions.  A  great  deal  of  it  consisted  of  study  of 
the  mystical  Brahman  religion  and  the  Hindu  philosophy 
of  asceticism  and  isolation.  Schools  were  kept  by  Brah- 
mans,  and  to  these  not  only  Brahmans  were  permitted  to 
go,  but  also  members  of  the  warrior  and  industrial  classes, 
although  few  from  these  classes  attended.  The  workers 
and  outcasts  were  deprived  of  educational  rights.  So  in 
practice  education  was  a  matter  of  caste  and  was  almost 
limited  to  the  Brahman  of  priestly  caste.  While  by  no 
means  as  barbarous  and  clumsy  a  system  as  the  Chinese, 
education  among  the  Hindus  was  not  progressive.  It 
did  not  attempt  to  fit  for  life  work,  for  it  consisted 
largely  of  memorizing  the  traditions  and  learning  of  the 


314  Education 

past.  New  methods  and  studies  were  forbidden.  It  was 
restricted  even  more  than  "the  Chinese  system,  fully 
ninety-five  per  cent  being  deprived  of  it.  In  both  coun- 
tries education  was  forbidden  to  women,  or  rather  women 
were  not  considered  worthy  of  education. 

Jewish  Education. — Jewish  education  might  be  termed 
a  sort  of  connecting  link  between  Oriental  and  Occidental 
systems.  While  it  consisted  largely  in  a  study  of  sacred 
literature — the  Old  Testament,  which  was  the  Jewish  law 
• — it  did  give  more  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
personality  than  the  systems  of  such  countries  as  China 
and  India.  It  was  non-progressive  and  did  not  invite  new 
theories  or  methods.  It  did  not  offer  any  opportunity 
for  the  development  of  science  and  art.  Like  the  Hindu, 
it  was  restricted  largely  to  the  priestly  class  and  was  not 
open  to  the  great  mass  of  the  population.  Jewish  schools 
were  not  so  highly  developed  as  those  of  China,  which  had 
a  regular  system  of  schools.  Most  of  the  teaching  was 
done  in  thp  temples,  and  regular  schools  were  not  organ- 
ized until  the  close  of  the  national  life  of  the  race. 

Greek  Education. — Eeal  educational  progress  began 
with  the  Greeks.  Here  the  past  was  not  worshiped  as 
in  the  Orient,  and  progress  was  made.  The  methods  of 
education,  however,  differed  with  the  ideals  of  the  in- 
dividual state,  those  of  Athens  and  Sparta  being  the  two 
extremes. 

Spartan  Education. — In  Sparta  education  was  almost 
wholly  phys.ical  and  was  a  preparation  for  service  to  the 
state.  It  was  severe  and  stern,  even  cruel  at  times,  and  was 
required  of  all  Spartans,  who,  however,  made  up  only  about 
one-twentieth  of  the  population.  Because  of  this  great  in- 
feriority in  numbers  the  Spartans  were  obliged  to  be  a  su- 
perior race  of  fighters,  and  their  whole  system  of  training 
had  that  end  in  view.  The  infant  was  inspected  at  birth,  and 
if  sickly  or  deformed  was  ''exposed"  to  die  in  the  moun- 
tains. If  healthy,  the  child  was  allowed  to  remain  with 
its  mother  till  seven  years  old,  when  it  was  placed  in 
barracks  and  trained  by  the  state.  Here  the  youth  was 
subject  to  discipline  ancl  spent  his  time  in  drilling  and 


Education  315 

gymnastic  exercises.  The  boys  were  taught  to  live  a 
simple  life  by  means  of  hard  beds  and  scanty  clothing 
and  diet.  Slight  intellectual  training  was  given;  that 
provided  was  in  the  nature  of  memorizing  the  laws  of 
Lycurgus  and  selections  from  Homer.  Each  boy  was 
given  an  adult  adviser.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  training 
in  arms  and  methods  of  warfare  was  begun,  varied  by 
a  severe  flogging  every  ten  days  before  the  temple  of 
Artemis.  This  continued  for  two  years,  when  the  youth 
entered  the  regular  army  and  was  assigned  to  a  border 
fortress,  where  he  was  compelled  to  live  on  the  coarsest 
of  fare.  At  the  age  of  thirty  every  man  was  compelled 
to  marry.  He  could,  however,  live  with  his  wife  only 
clandestinely,  being  obliged  to  remain  in  the  barracks 
and  assist  in  the  training  of  the  boys.  Similar  education 
was  marked  out  for  the  girls,  in  order  that  they  might 
become  mothers  of  sturdy  sons,  except  that  they  remained 
at  home.  The  whole  system  was  designed  to  create 
strong  warriors ;  it  did  to  a  wonderful  degree  accomplish 
its  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  Sparta  achieved 
nothing  in  art,  literature,  or  philosophy,  and  contributed 
little  if  anything  to  civilization,  other  than  the  examples 
of  heroism,  physical  endurance,  and  indifference  to  pain 
and  discomfort  which  it  gave. 

Athenian  Education. — In  early  Athens  education  con- 
sisted of  training  for  service  to  the  state,  as  in  Sparta. 
Training  began  at  the  age  of  seven,  but  it  was  not  limited 
to  physical  drill.  Along  with  physical  exercises  (which 
lacked  the  severity  of  the  Spartan  regime)  went  educa- 
tion in  music,  reading,  and  writing.  Moral  training  and 
discipline  were  given  by  a  slave,  called  a  pedagogue. 
At  fifteen  the  Athenian  youth  took  advanced  training  on 
the  gymnasia,  or  exercising  ground,  and  was  given  per- 
mission to  go  and  come  as  he  chose.  At  eighteen  he  took 
the  oath  of  loyalty  to  Athens  and  entered  upon  a  period 
of  two  years  of  military  training,  first  at  Athens,  then  at 
a  fortress  on  the  frontier.  At  twenty  he  became  a  citizen, 
but  his  education  continued  in  the  drama,  in  architecture, 
in  sculpture,  and  in  art.  The  weakness  of  the  Athenian 


316  Education 

system  was  that  the  women  were  neglected  entirely, 
except  for  training  in  household  duties.  Aside  from  this 
defect  Athenian  education  was  far  superior  to  that  of 
Sparta,  producing  a  better-rounded  citizen. 

Later  this  older  form  of  education  gave  way  to  one  of 
extreme  individualism,  under  which  the  happiness  of  the 
individual  was  given  more  consideration  than  the  wel- 
fare of  the  state.  The  study  of  grammar  and  rhetoric 
was  especially  emphasized  because  of  the  eagerness  of 
the  men  to  enter  political  life,  and  training  in  the  gym- 
nasia was  neglected.  With  this  change  there  appeared 
a  class  of  teachers  known  as  sophists ;  many  of  them  were 
skilled  teachers,  but  others  were  noted  for  their  ability 
to  argue  and  for  their  willingness  to  take  any  position. 
The  three  world-renowned  Greek  philosophers,  Socrates, 
Plato,  and  Aristotle,  lived  during  this  period.  They 
attempted  to  harmonize  the  old  and  the  new  educational 
institutions  and  to  build  systems  of  education  and  thought 
for  future  generations.  They  had  little  effect  on  their 
own  period,  although  they  have  influenced  all  succeed- 
ing generations.  Their  point  of  view  dominated  the 
thought  of  Europe  for  centuries.  After  them  there  arose 
schools  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  out  of  which  grew  the 
universities,  such  as  the  University  of  Athens,  which 
flourished  from  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  Other  universi- 
ties followed,  the  most  noted  of  which  were  those  of 
Pergamon,  Rhodes,  Alexandria,  and  Rome;  but  Athens 
remained  the  intellectual  center  of  the  world  until  about 
A.  D.  300,  when  it  gave  place  to  Alexandria.  During  this 
time  students  flocked  to  Athens  from  all  parts  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  The  later  intellectual  supremacy  of 
Alexandria  resulted  from  the  development  of  the 
Ptolemaic  system  of  astronomy  and  from  the  reputation 
of  such  investigators  as  Euclid  in  geometry,  Archimedes 
in  physics,  Eratosthenes  in  astronomy,  and  Diaphontus  in 
algebra.  In  addition  to  the  university  centers  many  dif- 
ferent schools  of  philosophers  sprang  up  in  various  parts 
of  the  Hellenic  world. 

Greek  thought  and  civilization  extended  their  influence 


Education  317 

over  the  Orient  and  into  every  part  of  the  Roman  world. 
It  did  not  merely  conquer  Home;  it  has  had  its  influence 
upon  every  age  from  that  time  down  to  the  present.  The 
contribution  of  Greece  to  the  world  was  that  of  civiliza- 
tion in  its  highest  form. 

Roman  Education. — During  the  early  days  of  Rome 
education  was  largely  a  family  affair  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  elementary  schools,  there  was  no  system 
of  education.  Children  were  taught  by  their  parents, 
but  because  of  the  intense  patriotism  and  active  military 
policy  of  the  Roman  people,  the  object  of  all  teaching 
was  service  to  the  state.  The  boys  were  trained  by  their 
fathers  and  the  girls  by  the  mothers,  although  in  early 
childhood  the  mothers  instructed  both.  They  were  given 
physical  and  moral  training,  and  the  ideals  were  rigorous 
and  the  discipline  severe.  As  the  boy  grew  older,  he 
accompanied  his  father  and  thus  learned  efficiency  in 
life  by  the  force  of  example.  If  the  boy  belonged  to  the 
patrician  class,  he  might  be  trained  for  a  profession,  as 
that  of  a  soldier,  lawyer,  or  statesman.  If  he  was  of  the 
plebeian  class,  he  usually  learned  the  trade  or  occupa- 
tion of  his  father.  A  girl,  no  matter  to  which  class  she 
belonged,  was  instructed  in  the  domestic  arts,  especially 
in  spinning  and  weaving  wool.  Through  their  parents 
the  children  were  generally  taught  to  read  and  write 
and  to  commit  to  memory  legends,  ballads,  and  martial 
and  religious  songs,  and  were  made  familiar  with  the 
Twelve  Tables,  or  national  laws.  Education  during  this 
period  was  essentially  practical  and  was  intended  to  pro- 
duce efficient  parents,  citizens,  and  soldiers — an  aim  which 
it  accomplished.  It  trained  the  youth  to  be  strong  in  mind 
and  body,  simple  in  his  life,  and  reverential  to  the  gods, 
to  parents,  and  to  law  and  tradition.  It  produced  a  nation 
of  fighters,  but  did  not  produce  idealists  or  philosophers; 
consequently  ideals  were  narrow,  selfish,  and  low.  It  served 
while  Rome  was  small,  but  when  Rome  became  a  world 
power,  this  form  of  training  had  to  be  supplemented. 

Hellenization  of  Roman  Education — In  168  B.  C.  Rome 
conquered  Macedon,  which  under  the  leadership  of  Philip 


318  Education 

and  Alexander  had  previously  absorbed  Greece.  Instead  of 
imposing  Roman  education  upon  Greece,  Rome  adopted 
Greek  culture  and  civilization,  including  the  Greek  system 
of  education.  It  was  not  adopted  altogether  in  the  Greek 
form,  but  as  it  worked  out  in  practice,  Greek  education 
was  added  to  the  Roman,  and  the  result  was  an  amalgama- 
tion. There  was  evolved  a  system  of  schools,  consisting  of 
three  grades:  (1)  the  Indus,  or  elementary  school;  (2)  the 
grammar  school;  and  (3)  the  rhetorical  school. 

The  Ludus,  or  lowest  school,  in  all  probability  existed 
before  the  conquest  of  Greece,  as  an  extension  of  home 
training,  but  it  was  not  fully  developed  until  after  the 
introduction  of  Greek  methods.  Through  imitation  and 
memory  were  taught  reading,  writing  and  the  rudiments 
of  calculation.  Little  if  any  effort  was  made  to  give  the 
meaning  of  the  things  taught,  and  of  course  the  work 
was  irksome  and  devoid  of  interest.  Discipline  was  severe 
and  enforced  by  use  of  the  lash,  rod,  and  whip,  and  the 
teachers  as  a  rule  were  feared  and  hated.  The  Greek 
custom  of  having  a  slave  accompany  the  child  to  school 
was  adopted  by  the  Romans. 

The  Grammar  School  was  a  result  of  an  increasing  de- 
mand for  education.  Here  were  studied  especially  grammar 
and  literature,  including  a  study  of  the  poets  and  prose 
writers,  with  some  work  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  astron- 
omy, geography,  and  music.  Gymnastic  exercises  were 
also  frequently  added.  There  was  little  improvement, 
however,  in  methods  of  discipline,  although  the  schools 
were  better  equipped  in  the  way  of  desks  and  decorations, 
as  well  as  separate  buildings.  The  elementary  schools 
were  generally  held  in  porches  and  in  booths. 

The  Rhetorical  Schools  were  really  professional  schools, 
fitting  for  the  occupation  of  politics  and  statesmanship. 
The  training  was  chiefly  in  oratory,  law,  and  history. 
The  courses  were  broadened  out  by  linguistic  and  literary 
education,  although  the  main  feature  was  training  in 
declamation  and  oratory.  After  completion  of  the  course 
at  a  rhetorical  school,  the  student  might  supplement  his 
edxication  with  work  at  a  university,  the  most  popular 


Education 

of  which  were  those  of  Athens,  Rhodes,  and  Alexan'" 
and  later  the  one  at  Rome  itself. 

At  first  there  was  no  public  educational  syst-u) 
establishment  of  schools  being  a  private  matte       * 
the  time  of  the  later  empire  the  governmev 
subsidize  the  schools  by  contributing  to  4 
paying  certain  teachers,  exempting  the    stud  en  .1 

taxes  and  military  duties  and  offering      i  •  On 

account  of  the  rapid  establishment  of       ..  j  the 

desire  of  the  people  to  obtain  the,     •    >  rather 

than  to  procure  an  education;  av  i    to  correct 

these  and  other  abuses  connected    .  -hools,  the 

emperor  decreed  that  he  alone   had  .athority    to 

establish  schools,  and  brought  them  into  .he  control  of 
the  government.  In  this  way  he  laid  the  basis  for  a 
system  of  public  education,  the  first  known  to  history. 
While  in  the  later  days  of  the  empire  the  schools  de- 
teriorated in  character  and  influence,  Roman  education 
left  its  impress  upon  the  world.  It  was  essentially  prac- 
tical and  helped  mold  the  institutions  that  have  advanced 
civilization.  It  adopted  as  a  basis  Greek  education,  added 
practical  features,  and  thus  prepared  the  world  for 
further  progress.  It  paved  the  way  for  the  new  educa- 
tional system  which  was  brought  in  by  the  Christian 
Church  and  which  largely  replaced  the  Roman  school. 
The  chief  defect  in  Roman  education  was  perhaps  that 
it,  like  the  Greek,  was  limited  to  the  upper  classes,  and 
therefore  was  not  democratic. 

Early  Christian  Education. — When  Rome  began  to  de- 
cline, Christianity  appeared  and  spread  rapidly  in  spite 
of  all  attempts  to  prevent  it.  At  first  the  new  religion 
was  accepted  largely  by  the  lower  classes,  such  as  the 
slaves  and  the  poor.  The  majority  of  these  classes  of 
people  were  uneducated  and  unintelligent.  The  new 
religion,  however,  supplied  them  with  moral  training 
of  a  high  order.  Because  of  persecution  and  ostra- 
cism the  early  Christians  were  more  or  less  segregated. 
There  was  within  these  groups  of  Christians  a  demand 
for  instruction  in  the  new  religion,  and  it  was  deemed 


320  Educatimi 

necessary  to  give  some  such  instruction  before  admitting 
into  church  membership.  This  led  to  the  establishment 
of  what  were  called  ' ' catechumenal' '  schools,  which  were 
held  generally  in  some  part  of  the  church  building,  as 
the  portico.  The  instruction  \vas  chiefly  religious,  includ- 
ing the  reading  and  memorizing  of  scripture  and  the 
singing  of  hymns.  The  course  of  instruction  usually 
lasted  for  a  period  of  three  years. 

The  early  Christians  were  suspicious  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  philosophy  and  education.  It  was  only  natural 
that  they  should  recall  the  immorality  and  the  ter- 
rible persecutions  of  the  Komans.  But  gradually  there 
developed  a  reconciliation  between  the  two,  resulting 
in  certain  catechetical  schools,  in  which  there  was  some 
sort  of  alliance  between  Graeco-Roman  and  Christian 
thought  in  education.  The  best  known  of  these  schools 
was  probably  the  one  at  Alexandria,  which  was  headed 
by  Clement  (150-215)  and  Origen  (185-253),  who  were 
extremely  advanced  in  their  theology,  so  much  so 
that  they  were  branded  as  heretical.  In  these  schools 
Christianity  received  a  philosophical  interpretation. 
Then  in  order  to  train  workers  and  those  intending  to 
enter  the  clergy  there  were  organized  in  the  different 
cities  what  were  known  as  "episcopal"  or  "bishops'  ' 
schools,  later  known  as  "cathedral"  schools,  because  of 
their  location.  They  developed  into  schools  of  three  types, 
the  "grammar"  school,  the  "song"  or  music  school,  and 
the  "choristers'  "  school,  which  was  a  combination  of 
the  two  preceding.  These  increased  in  popularity  and 
took  the  place  of  the  older  Roman  schools  which  were 
subsidized  by  the  emperors.  With  these  schools  there 
grew  up  again  opposition  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  cul- 
ture and  ideas  of  life,  and  there  was  a  breaking  away 
from  the  Greek  and  Roman  philosophy.  This  led  to  the 
rise  of  the  monastic  schools,  which  had  so  great  an  in- 
fluence during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Education  During  the  Middle  Ages. — Monastic  Educa- 
tion.— By  the  decree  of  Justinian  in  A.  D.  529  the  pagan 


Education  321 

schools  were  abolished,  and  the  field  was  thus  left  open 
to  the  cathedral  and  monastic  schools.  Monasticism  grew 
up  as  a  result  of  the  desire  on  the  part  of  some  people 
for  a  deeper  religious  life,  and  as  a  reaction  to  the  pre- 
vailing vice.  Monasteries  were  founded,  where  the  monks 
lived  in  cells,  meeting  for  meals,  communion,  and  instruc- 
tion. This  movement  began  in  Egypt  but  quickly  spread 
over  Syria,  Palestine,  Greece,  Italy,  and  Gaul.  In  the 
west  the  attention  of  the  monks  was  directed  especially 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  the  preservation  of 
literature.  In  accordance  with  a  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
most  of  the  monasteries  adopted  the  plan  of  spending 
seven  hours  a  day  in  manual  labor  and  two  hours  in 
systematic  reading.  This  created  a  demand  for  manu- 
scripts, and  each  monastery  had  its  "writing  room"  for 
the  copying  of  manuscripts.  Most  of  these  manuscripts 
were  of  a  religious  nature,  but  some  of  them  were  from 
the  classics.  This  literary  activity  helped  to  preserve 
the  learning  of  the  past.  It  also  led  to  the  establishment 
of  monastic  schools  with  organized  courses  of  study,  of 
eight  or  ten  years.  These  schools  were  instituted  for 
the  training  of  youths  for  the  monastic  orders,  although 
some  were  admitted  who  did  not  intend  to  become  monks ; 
likewise  some  instruction  was  given  women  in  the  con- 
vents for  nuns. 

At  first  the  training  in  these  schools  was  elementary 
and  narrow,  but  later  included  such  studies  as  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  dialectics,  which  were  called  the  lower  studies, 
and  arithmetic,  geometry,  music,  and  astronomy,  which 
were  known  as  the  higher  studies.  Grammar  included 
some  work  in  literature ;  rhetoric  some  knowledge  of  law 
and  history;  dialectics  led  to  metaphysics;  geometry  in- 
cluded geography  and  surveying;  music  reached  such 
advanced  phases  as  the  theory  of  music;  and  astronomy 
included  some  physics  and  higher  mathematics;  so  the 
courses  of  study  were  not  so  narrow  as  they  woulcl  seem 
at  first  glance.  Text-books  were  scarce,  and  the  instructor 
usually  dictated,  and  the  pupil  took  the  dictation  down 


322  Education 

upon  tablets  and  memorized  it.  Many  text-books  were 
eventually  produced,  some  of  which  were  of  high  grade. 
While  the  monastic  schools  were  conservative,  superstitious, 
and  decidedly  hostile  to  the  classics  and  science,  they 
did  the  world  a  great  service  by  preserving  and  handing 
down  much  Grgeco-Eoman  culture  that  otherwise  would 
have  been  lost. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  the  schools  of 
Europe  degenerated  and  education  stood  at  a  low  ebb. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Charlemagne,  noticing  the  degen- 
eracy, induced  Alcuin,  the  head  of  a  famous  cathedral 
school  at  York,  to  come  to  the  continent  and  reorganize 
education  in  France.  He  built  up,  with  the  patronage 
of  Charlemagne,  the  Palace  School,  where  instruction  in- 
cluded grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectics,  arithmetic,  and  the- 
ology. He  also  improved  the  cathedral,  monastic,  and 
parish  schools.  Later,  Alcuin  retired  to  the  monastery 
at  Tours,  where  he  established  a  school  to  which  the 
bright  youths  of  the  empire  flocked.  Many  of  these  later 
became  teachers  and  churchmen.  Although  in  his  old 
age  Alcuin  became  ultra-conservative,  his  pupils  generally 
were  broad-minded,  and  the  result  of  his  going  to  France 
was  a  marked  revival  in  education. 

Moslem  Contributions. — Because  of  the  almost  absolute 
illiteracy  of  Mohammed,  the  Koran,  or  Moslem  Bible,  was 
a  strange  jumble  of  religious  ideas.  When  Moham- 
medanism came  into  contact  with  Greek  philosophy  in 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  the  Koran  had  to  be  interpreted 
in  Hellenistic  terms.  Works  in  philosophy,  mathematics, 
and  science  were  translated  into  Arabic,  and  the  Moham- 
medan cities  of  Syria  became  noted  for  their  learning. 
This  did  not  win  the  approval  of  the  mass  of  Moham- 
medans, and  the  more  advanced  members  were  driven 
out  of  Syria,  taking  refuge  in  Northern  Africa  and  Spain. 
Here  they  founded  colleges  at  Cordova,  Granada,  Toledo, 
and  elsewhere,  which  preserved  learning,  especially  in 
mathematics,  science,  law,  and  metaphysics.  They  came 
into  contact  wuth  the  Christians  and  created  a  desire  for 
Greek  learning,  and  later  the  Venetians  brought  many 


Education  323 

original  Greek  classics  to  Western  Europe.  This  transfer 
of  manuscripts  preserved  much  of  the  learning  of  the 
East,  which  might  otherwise  have  been  lost. 

Mediaeval  Universities. — Partly  as  a  result  of  Moslem 
stimulation  and  partly  on  account  of  the  local  conditions 
many  noted  universities  sprang  up  in  Europe  towards  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  first  of  these  was  at 
Salerno,  near  Naples;  it  was  simply  a  school  of  medicine, 
whose  establishment  was  due  to  local  conditions,  such  as 
the  existence  there  of  mineral  springs  and  the  preserva- 
tion at  that  place  of  old  Greek  medical  works.  Probably 
the  most  noted  of  these  universities  was  at  Bologna,  in 
Northern  Italy.  Through  its  investigations  in  Roman 
law  it  became  noted  for  courses  in  canon  and  civil  law. 
It  was  chartered  by  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  1158,  and 
was  perhaps  the  first  university  in  the  modern  sense,  hav- 
ing faculties  in  arts,  medicine,  and  theology.  The  uni- 
versity at  Paris  was  the  next  in  order  of  foundation,  and 
it  became  the  most  famous  of  them  all.  The  universities 
of  Bologna  and  Paris  were  of  different  types,  the  former 
representing  the  type  known  as  "student"  universities. 
In  this  sort  of  institution  the  government  was  in  the 
hands  of  students,  who  were  often  mature  men;  they 
selected  the  masters  and  determined  the  fees,  length  of 
term,  and  date  of  beginning.  Paris  was  of  the  type 
known  as  "master"  universities,  where  the  students  were 
younger,  and  where  all  management  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  masters.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  about 
eighty  universities  had  been  established  upon  one  or  the 
other  of  these  two  plans.  Only  about  fifty  survived,  and 
these  changed  a  great  deal  in  character. 

Universities  were  usually  granted  charters  which 
carried  special  privileges  of  some  kind,  such  as  exemption 
from  taxes  and  military  service,  the  right  to  license 
masters,  and'  the  privilege  of  "striking"  when  rights 
were  infringed  upon.  In  the  last  case,  lectures  might  be 
suspended  and  the  university  moved  to  another  town,  a 
transfer  which  was  not  very  difficult  because  of  lack  of 
laboratories,  libraries,  and  other  equipment.  Wandering 


324  Education 

students,  a  shiftless,  reckless,  and  vicious  lot,  begging 
their  way  from  one  place  to  another  and  migrating  from 
university  to  university,  were  also  a  feature  of  the  time. 

After  a  time,  the  universities  were  more  closely  organ- 
ized, the  students  being  grouped  according  to  the  coun- 
tries or  sections  of  Europe  from  which  they  came,  and  the 
masters  into  faculties.  Each  group  of  students  had  its 
counselor,  who  represented  it  and  looked  after  its  inter- 
ests ;  and  each  faculty  had  its  dean,  who  acted  as  its  rep- 
resentative. The  deans  and  counselors  together  generally 
selected  the  "rector,"  or  head  of  the  university.  The 
faculties  represented  were  as  a  rule  arts,  law,  medicine, 
and  theology.  The  courses  of  study  in  each  of  these  insti- 
tutions were  determined  either  by  papal  decree  or  by 
legislation  on  the  part  of  the  university.  The  course  in 
arts  included  the  subjects  taught  in  the  monastic  school, 
with  the  addition  of  the  study  of  Aristotle.  In  the  law 
course,  Corpus  Juris  Civilis  and  the  Decree  of  Gratian 
were  used  as  texts  in  civil  and  canon  law  respectively. 
Texts  were  also  used  in  the  medical  and  theological  courses. 
The  lecture  method  was  employed  extensively,  in  which 
the  texts  were  read  and  explained  by  means  of  notes,  sum- 
maries, cross-references,  and  opinions  of  the  professors. 
Opportunity  was  also  given  for  argument  and  debate,  all 
exercises  being  carried  on  in  Latin,  which  had  to  be  learned 
by  the  student  before  entering  the  university.  Examina- 
tions were  held  and  degrees  conferred  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  at  the  present  day.  While  the  information  was 
meager  and  the  manner  of  presentation  stereotyped  and 
authoritative,  and  little  was  done  in  constructive  thinking 
or  investigation,  the  mediaeval  university  contained  the 
germ  of  scientific  inquiry  and  modern  freedom,  and  thus 
paved  the  way  for  progressive  educational  ideas.  It 
advanced  the  cause  of  individualism  and  contributed  its 
part  to  civilization  and  progress. 

Agencies  outside  the  school  systems  fostered  special  types 
of  education,  such  as  that  given  the  upper  classes  through 
the  institution  of  chivalry,  and  the  industrial  education 
received  by  members  of  the  merchant  or  craft  guilds.  In 


Education  325 

the  former  case,  the  boys  who  expected  to  become  knights 
were  required  to  pass  through  a  long  period  of  training, 
first  at  home,  then  at  some  castle  where  the  youth  served 
as  a  page  and  was  trained  by  both  the  lord  and  lady, 
and  later  as  a  squire,  when  he  attended  the  lord  at  the 
tournament  or  on  the  battlefield  and  went  through  a  more 
strenuous  training.  Upon  being  knighted  he  had  to  ob- 
serve certain  ceremonies. 

With  the  rise  of  commerce  and  industry  in  the  later 
Middle  Ages  there  developed  merchant  cities  and  a 
burgher  class.  Workmen  organized  themselves  into  guilds, 
which  exercised  rigorous  supervision  of  the  industry,  and 
among  other  things  regulated  carefully  the  learning  of 
the  trade,  in  order  to  maintain  quality  of  product  and 
to  guarantee  prosperity  for  the  workman.  There  were 
three  stages:  (1)  apprentice,  (2)  journeyman,  and  (3) 
master.  The  apprentice  received  no  wages  but  was  under 
the  protection  of  the  guild  while  he  received  instruction. 
A  journeyman  received  wages,  but  only  by  working  for 
a  master.  He  was  obliged  to  pass  an  examination  set  by 
the  guild  before  he  was  allowed  to  become  a  master.  Thus 
a  thorough  industrial  education  was  provided.  Guilds 
also  usually  maintained  priests  whose  duty  it  was  to  in- 
struct the  children  a  part  of  the  time.  Later  priests  were 
regularly  employed  to  teach  school,  and  in  this  way  guild 
schools  sprang  up.  These  were  afterward  absorbed  by 
burgher  or  town  schools,  in  which  practical  education  was 
given  in  reading,  writing,  and  reckoning.  They  were  con- 
trolled by  the  public  authorities  and  represented  the  in- 
terests of  the  commercial  and  industrial  classes.  They 
not  only  contributed  to  the  development  of  commerce  and 
industry,  but  they  also  educated  the  masses  in  the  liberal 
arts  and  were  a  large  factor  in  preparing  the  way  for  the 
Renaissance. 

The  Renaissance  and  Reformation. — Classical  Educa- 
tion.— The  intellectual  awakening  known  as  the  Renais- 
sance which  occurred  during  the  fourteenth  century 
brought  into  Europe  a  tremendous  revival  of  learning. 
It  took  the  form  of  a  study  of  the  classics,  and  an  en- 


326  Education 

thusiasm  or  craze  for  this  form  of  study  spread  over 
Europe  with  an  eagerness  that  knew  no  bounds.  At  first 
it  was  limited  to  a  revival  of  the  Latin  classics  and 
naturally  started  in  Italy,  the  home  of  the  Latin  classics. 
The  most  noted  of  the  early  students  of  the  classics  were 
Petrarch  and  his  pupil  Boccaccio.  Through  their  influence 
many  Latin  manuscripts  were  recovered,  preserved,  and 
copied,  and  a  wide  knowledge  of  Latin  was  handed  down. 
Not  much  was  done  with  the  study  of  Greek  till  Chrysolas 
arrived  in  Italy  as  an  envoy  of  the  Eastern  emperor,  and 
was  induced  to  settle  there,  in  1396,  in  order  to  teach 
Greek.  With  his  help  translations  were  made  and  a 
Greek  grammar  written.  From  that  time  the  study  of 
both  Latin  and  Greek  became  paramount. 

The  tyrants  of  many  of  the  Italian  cities,  including 
Florence,  Venice,  Padua,  Verona,  Ferrara,  and  Mantua, 
established  schools  in  order  to  foster  study  of  the  classics. 
They  did  this  as  a  means  of  catering  to  public  sentiment, 
thus  making  their  own  positions  more  secure.  The  most 
famous  of  these  was  the  school  headed  by  Vittorino  da 
Feltre,  which  aimed  at  a  harmonious  development  of 
mind,  body,  and  morals.  A  grammatical  and  literary 
study  of  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  writers  was  required, 
thus  providing  the  student  with  a  mastery  of  vocabulary, 
rhythm,  and  style.  Mathematical  subjects  were  also 
taught  and  physical  and  moral  instruction  given.  This 
school  turned  out  a  number  of  distinguished  statesmen, 
churchmen,  scholars,  and  rulers.  The  schools  of  this  type 
received  the  children  of  the  nobility  and  aristocracy  at 
an  early  age,  and  retained  them  until  they  were  twenty- 
one.  They  became  rivals  of  the  universities,  because  they 
carried  the  students  generally  as  far  and  sometimes 
farther  than  did  the  latter.  Because  of  this  competition 
the  universities  were  compelled  to  add  the  classics  to  their 
curriculums.  In  Italy  the  study  of  the  classics  gradually 
degenerated  into  an  aping  of  the  style  and  forms  of  Cicero, 
and  became  known  as  ' '  Ciceronianism. ' ' 

The  study  of  the  classics  spread  from  Italy  northward 
into  France  and  Germany,  where  it  took  on  a  broader  sys- 


Education  32,7 

tern  of  culture.  It  was  especially  stimulated  in  France 
by  the  enthusiasm,  resulting  from  expeditions  of  several 
of  the  French  kings  into  Italy,  and  later  under  the 
patronage  of  Francis  I  it  was  introduced  into  most  of  the 
educational  institutions  of  France,  where  it  produced 
many  famous  scholars.  In  Germany  the  Hieronymians, 
or  Brethren  of  the  Common  Lot,  were  the  first  to  in- 
troduce the  study  into  their  schools.  Here  Erasmus,  who 
became  the  leader  of  the  classical  education  in  the  north, 
"was  trained.  Under  his  influence  many  textbooks  and 
educational  treatises  were  prepared.  Classical  training 
was  introduced  into  many  schools,  and  from  the  old 
cathedral  and  upper  burgher  schools  there  evolved  the 
German  ' '  gymnazium, "  the  typical  classical  school  of  that 
country.  One  of  the  first  of  these  was  established  by 
Sturm  at  Strassburg,  where  a  course  of  ten  classes  was 
provided,  in  which  a  careful  study  of  the  classics  was 
carried  out.  The  movement  spread  to  England  and  was 
taken  up  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  real  develop/- 
ment  at  Cambridge  began  when  Erasmus,  professor  of 
theology,  consented  to  lecture  on  Greek  as  a  labor  of  love. 
A  model  for  all  secondary  schools  was  founded  in  1509 
at  St.  Paul's  by  Colet.  The  study  of  the  classics  in  Eng- 
land, however,  degenerated  into  formalism,  and  the 
secondary  schools  have  improved  but  little  to  the  present 
day.  The  secondary  schools  of  the  American  colonies 
were  modeled  upon  those  of  the  mother  country. 

Educational  Influence  of  the  Reformation. — The  Kefor- 
mation  gave  the  world  not  only  a  religious  awakening, 
but  an  educational  inspiration  as  well.  Luther  stood 
primarily  for  religious  reform,  but  he  advocated  the  view 
that  education  should  prepare  for  citizenship  and  should 
be  state  supported.  Zwingli  held  similar  views,  but  was 
killed  before  he  was  able  to  exercise  much  influence.  Cal- 
vin not  only  founded  several  colleges  but  exercised  an 
influence  in  the  founding  of  others,  and  in  determining 
the  educational  thought  of  Switzerland,  France,  the 
Netherlands,  England  and  Scotland. 


328  Education 

Catholic  education  also  received  a  new  impetus.  The 
Jesuits  organized  colleges  to  extend  Catholic  Christianity ; 
these  taught  the  classics,  theology,  and  philosophy.  The 
teachers  were  carefully  trained  and  selected,  and  while 
the  methods  used  consisted  largely  of  memorizing  and 
reviewing,  with  devices  to  stir  up  rivalry,  they  were 
effective.  These  colleges  increased  phenomenally,  till  in 
1556  there  were  769  such  institutions  scattered  throughout 
the  world,  with  an  attendance  of  at  least  200,000  students. 
Because  of  quarrels  with  the  church  the  Jesuit  order,  the 
society  of  Jesus  was  dissolved  by  the  Pope.  While  it  was 
later  restored,  its  educational  influence  never  again  be- 
came so  great. 

Other  Catholic  bodies  also  founded  schools  and  exerted 
educational  influences ;  such  were  the  Jansenists,  generally 
known  as  Port  Koyalists,  because  of  the  educational 
method  used  in  the  convent  school  at  Port  Royal.  They 
held  that  reason  was  more  important  than  memory,  and 
established  small  schools,  known  as  "little  schools,"  where 
individual  instruction  was  emphasized,  and  where  stress 
was  placed  upon  the  vernacular,  logic,  and  geometry.  The 
phonetic  method  of  instruction  was  here  employed.  The 
Christian  Brothers  emphasized  practical  studies,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  study  of  academic  subjects  and  religion.  They 
introduced  the  "simultaneous,"  or  group  method  of  in- 
struction, preferring  it  to  individual  instruction,  which 
had  prevailed  in  the  past.  They  also  established  training 
courses  for  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools. 

One  of  the  contributions  of  the  Reformation  was  the 
creation  of  a  demand  for  universal  elementary  education 
and  control  of  the  schools  by  the  state.  "While  some 
Catholics  in  Germany,  Holland,  Scotland,  and  some  of  the 
American  colonies  took  this  position,  the  movement  was 
much  stronger  among  Protestants  in  those  countries. 
"With  the  Protestants  the  secondary  schools  came  largely 
under  the  management  of  civil  authorities,  although  the 
clergy  generally  taught  and  inspected  them.  "With  the 
Catholics  secondary  education  was  mainly  in  the  hands 
of  the  Jesuits.  During  this  time  many  colleges  changed 


Education  329 

from  the  Catholic  to  the  Protestant  faith,  and  many  new 
colleges,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  were  founded. 

Modern  Times. — During  the  seventeenth  century  scien- 
tific education  developed  rapidly.  It  had  been  stimulated 
by  the  labors  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  and  Galileo  in  the 
field  of  astronomy,  and  by  the  discoveries  of  Torricelli, 
Boyle,  and  Guericke.  Newton,  with  his  laws  of  motion; 
Harvey,  with  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood ; 
and  other  scientists,  with  their  contributions,  added  to 
this  impetus.  The  scientific  movement  was  opposed  at 
first  by  the  churches,  and  consequently  was  not  taken  up 
by  the  colleges  and  universities  for  some  time.  But  slowly 
and  indirectly  it  crept  into  the  elementary  schools,  and 
in  time  was  incorporated  in  the  courses  of  study  of  the 
colleges  and  universities  throughout  the  world.  German 
universities  were  the  first  to  fall  into  line,  especially  those 
of  Halle  and  Gottingen.  The  English  universities  of  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  were  much  slower  to  accept  science 
as  an  object  of  study.  During  the  early  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  Yale,  Princeton,  Kings  (afterwards  Colum- 
bia), Dartmouth,  Union,  and  Pennsylvania  offered  courses 
in  science,  and  Harvard  did  so  even  before  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Growth  of  Democracy  in  Education.  Its  Extension  to  the 
Lower  Classes. — During  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  there  was  a  revolt  against  the  repression  of 
opinion  in  theology  and  education,  much  like  the  revolt 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  same  century  against  polit- 
ical repression.  There  was  a  struggle  to  free  the  intellect 
from  form  and  dogma,  and  to  interpret  life  from  a  more 
reasonable  and  natural  point  of  view.  One  of  the  great 
thinkers  of  those  times  was  Voltaire,  who  championed 
reason  against  tradition.  While  he  particularly  assailed 
the  church,  both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic — espe- 
cially the  latter — because  he  considered  it  an  enemy  of 
liberty  and  progress,  he  aided  education  not  only  by  his 
criticism  of  the  old  systems,  but  by  his  introduction  into 
France  of  the  new  theories  of  education  with  which  he 
had  become  acquainted  while  an  exile  in  England. 


330  Education 

In  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  many  attempts 
at  more  universal  education,  especially  in  England,  where 
the  condition  of  the  laboring  class,  which  comprised  about 
one-sixth  of  the  population,  was  wretched,  wages  being 
low,  work  irregular,  and  dire  poverty  general.  Many 
charity  schools  were  established  and  philanthropic 
societies  formed  to  extend  this  work.  Such  were  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge,  and 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts,  the  latter  of  which  supported  schools  in  all  ths 
American  colonies  except  Virginia.  These  societies  weri 
organized  and  managed  by  philanthropic  individuals. 
They  encountered  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
upper  classes,  on  the  ground  that  the  business  of  the 
working  classes  was  to  labor  and  not  to  think;  and  on 
the  part  of  the  lower  classes,  because  they  resented 
charity.  This  movement  nourished  for  a  while  and,  as 
mentioned  above,  was  even  extended  to  America,  where 
a  number  of  such  societies  were  organized  and  schools 
founded;  but  in  time  interest  waned,  subscriptions  fell 
off,  and  the  movement  declined. 

Monitor  Schools. — Another  movement,  which  did  much 
for  the  extension  of  education  to  the  masses  because  of 
its  method,  was  the  system  of  instruction  through  moni- 
tors, a  system  developed  in  England  by  two  rivals, 
Lancaster  and  Bell.  "With  the  use  of  older  students  as 
monitors,  a  much  larger  number  could  be  instructed  at 
a  time  than  under  the  previous,  more  individual  methods. 
This  was  carried  out  by  company  organization  and  drill, 
a  system  of  officers,  badges,  rewards  and  punishments 
being  provided.  While  formal  and  mechanical,  it 
furthered  the  idea  of  national  education  and  paved  the 
way  for  state  support;  it  also  greatly  improved  methods 
of  teaching.  It  spread  widely  and  was  adopted  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  United  States,  but  disappeared 
with  the  improvement  in  educational  methods.  It  con- 
tributed, however,  its  part  to  the  advance  of  education. 

Infant  Schools  for  poor  children  were  introduced  during 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  France, 


Education  331 

England,  and  the  United  States.  While  founded  largely 
from  philanthropic  motives,  they  spread  widely  and  were 
adopted  as  a  regular  part  of  the  national  school  systems. 
They  soon  became  formal  and  mechanical,  but  had  a 
beneficial  effect  by  introducing  better  methods  and  equip- 
ment. They  encouraged  a  movement  towards  play- 
grounds, and  in  the  United  States  brought  women  into  the 
schools  as  teachers. 

While  much  opposed,  the  philanthropic  movement  in 
education  was  of  value  in  that  it  prepared  the  way  for 
public  education  on  a  national  scale. 

Educational  Reforms. — 1.  Naturalistic  Tendency. — The 
chief  instigator  of  the  naturalistic  movement  was  Rousseau 
(1712-1778).  While  better  known  to  the  student  of  soci- 
ology and  political  science  through  his  Social  Contract,  he 
had  by  means  of  his  fimile  a  tremendous  influence  upon 
education.  This  work  is  divided  into  five  books.  In  the 
first  he  takes  the  child  from  birth  to  five  years  of  age, 
during  which  time  the  training  should  consist  of  physical 
activities.  In  the  second,  from  five  to  twelve,  or  during 
childhood,  when  the  training  should  develop  the  limbs  and 
senses.  In  the  third,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years,  or 
during  boyhood,  when  the  training  should  be  intellectual 
and  should  include  a  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  stimu- 
lating the  curiosity  concerning  nature.  In  the  fourth, 
from  fifteen  to  twenty,  social  and  moral  development 
are  urged,  for  during  this  period  the  sex  interests  appear 
and  should  be  properly  guided  and  trained.  The  fifth 
book  takes  up  the  training  of  the  girl.  Emile  is  sup- 
posed to  marry  a  type  of  woman  that  is  extremely 
parasitic.  In  this  work  Rousseau,  while  inconsistent  at 
times,  is  brilliant  and  suggestive;  it  entitles  him  to  rank 
as  an  originator  of  the  social,  scientific,  and  psychological 
movements  in. education.  He  did  not,  however,  make  any 
immediate  impression  upon  educators;  in  fact,  it  fell  to 
Basedow  first  to  put  the  naturalism  of  Rousseau  into 
practice.  He  took  the  stand  that  education  should  be 
practical  and  should  follow  the  methods  of  play.  He 
established,  with  the  aid  of  subsidies,  a  model  school, 


332  Education 

known  as  the  "philanthropinum,"  and  produced  several 
textbooks  for  this  method.  Languages  were  taught 
through  conversation,  and  games  and  other  sciences  by 
equally  natural  methods.  Industrial  training  was  also 
included.  The  school  was  very  successful  and  its  methods 
were  copied  to  such  an  extent  that  this  type  of  school 
became  a  fad.  Nevertheless  it  did  much  good  by  giving 
a  new  stimulus  to  education. 

2.  Observation  and  Industrial  Training  —  Pestalozzi 
(1746-1827). — The  further  development  and  practical 
application  of  the  naturalistic  theory  of  Rousseau  was 
left  to  Pestalozzi  to  carry  out.  Early  in  life  he  was 
inspired  with  the  desire  to  elevate  the  degraded  peasantry 
of  Europe.  After  meeting  failure  in  the  ministry  and 
law,  he  turned  his  attention  to  education,  where  in  a 
school  at  Neuhof  he  undertook  a  combination  of  industrial 
and  educational  training,  but  failed  in  the  undertaking. 
In  1798  he  was  given  another  opportunity  to  carry  out 
his  philanthropic  and  industrial  ideas  in  education.  Hav- 
ing no  assistants,  books,  or  materials,  he  was  obliged  to 
instruct  through  observation,  a  method  which  he  used  in 
morals,  arithmetic,  languages,  geography,  and  history. 
In  another  school  at  Burgdorf,  Pestalozzi  was  obliged 
to  discontinue  industrial  training,  but  here  and  later  at 
Yverdon  he  developed  his  observational  method  to  its 
culmination.  He  looked  upon  education  as  a  natural 
development  of  innate  powers.  He  believed  that  clear 
ideas  could  be  formed  only  through  the  aid  of  the  senses, 
and  he  tried  to  reduce  each  subject  to  its  simplest  ele- 
ments and  to  develop  it  by  means  of  graded  exercises. 
He  insisted  that  education  should  follow  the  psychological 
steps  of  a  child's  development.  He  sought  to  elevate 
society  by  means  of  education,  and  while  his  methods 
were  unoriginal,  impractical,  inconsistent,  and  lacking  in 
science  and  organization,  he  was  the  real  progenitor  of 
modern  pedagogy.  Not  only  did  he  usher  in  new  methods 
of  instruction,  but  he  started  a  new  type  of  discipline, 
substituting  friendliness  and  love  for  the  brutal  methods 
then  in  vogue.  Because  of  this,  his  methods  spread 


Education 

rapidly  over  Europe  and  the  United  States,  being  widely 
developed  by  his  followers.  The  industrial  and  intellec- 
tual combination,  which  Pestalozzi  was  obliged  to  discard 
because  of  the  social  position  of  his  pupils,  was  taken 
up  by  his  friend  Fellenberg  (1771-1844)  at  Hofwyl.  It 
was  continued  in  industrial  training  schools  in  Europe 
and  in  the  " manual  labor"  movement  in  the  United 
States,  where  it  has  been  particularly  developed  in  the 
Indian  and  Negro  schools,  such  as  Carlisle,  Hampton,  and 
Tuskegee,  and  also  in  schools  for  defectives  and  delin- 
quents. The  Pestalozzi  idea  is  also  applied  in  the  manual 
training  departments  of  our  public  schools  and  the  special 
trade  schools. 

(3)  Herbart  (1776-1841)  and  Froebel  (1782-1852). 
Two  followers  of  Pestalozzi,  who  extended  and  carried 
on  to  a  higher  development  the  work  of  their  master, 
were  Herbart  and  Froebel.  Each  of  these  worked  out 
systems  of  pedagogy,  Herbart  basing  his  upon  his  own 
ingenious  psychology,  and  Froebel  upon  a  kind"  of  mystic 
philosophy.  Both  reproduced  theories  of  Pestalozzi  in 
a  more  logical  manner.  Herbart  and  his  followers  laid 
stress  particularly  upon  the  moral  aim  of  education  and 
the  control  of  conduct  through  ideas.  They  elaborated 
a  theory  of  subject  matter  which  was  based  upon  epochs 
of  cultural  development;  they  constructed  a  curriculum 
founded  on  correlation  of  studies  and  upon  the  unity 
of  knowledge  and  experience.  Herbart  believed  that  the 
mind  develops  through  its  own  experience,  that  in  this 
manner  education  can  control  the  growth  of  intelligence 
and  character,  and  that  instruction  should  stimulate 
through  ideas  and  experience. 

Froebel  laid  emphasis  upon  self-activity  as  the  basis 
anc^method  of  instruction;  upon  natural  interests  as  the 
starting  point  .of  all  education ;  and  upon  play,  construc- 
tive work,  and  the  study  of  nature  as  the  chief  means  of 
teaching.  He  held  that  self-realization,  or  individualiza- 
tion,  can  only  be  achieved  through  the  development  of  the 
social  instincts.  In  addition,  he  developed  the  kinder- 
garten, or  school  without  books  or  tasks,  and  thus  was  the1 


334  Education 

originator  of  the  kindergarten  movement,  which  has 
spread  over  Europe  and  America. 

Nearly  all  the  modern  tendencies  in  education  can  be 
traced  back  in  some  rudimentary  form  to  Herbart  or 
Froebel;  in  fact,  present  educational  theory  is  largely 
a  synthesis  of  Herbartian  and  Froebelian  ideas,  the  latter 
being  probably  more  in  accord  with  modern  thought. 

American  Educational  Development. — Colonial  Educa- 
tion.— Naturally  the  schools  of  the  early  colonies  closely 
resembled  those  of  the  countries  from  which  the  colonists 
migrated,  just  as  they  were  influenced  by  the  prevailing 
religious  and  political  ideas.  The  colonies  which  were 
under  democratic  control  and  in  which  the  Calvinistie 
attitude  prevailed  made  attempts  at  some  sort  of  uni- 
versal education,  while  those  which  were  under  aristo- 
cratic control  and  were  composed  of  followers  of  the 
Church  of  England  did  not  favor  universal  education. 
The  Calvinists  favored  universal  education  because  they 
believed  that  the  people  should  be  able  to  read  the  scrip- 
tures, in  order  that  they  might  be  guided  by  the  word 
of  God.  The  aristocratic  colonies  spent  more  time  and 
means  upon  establishing  higher  education  than  they  did 
upon  universal  education.  After  many  efforts,  this  re- 
sulted in  the  founding  of  William  and  Mary  College  in 
Virginia,  in  1692,  although  little  was  done  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  poorer  classes  in  Virginia  and  the  South  until 
many  years  later. 

Three  types  of  school  organization  developed  in  the 
colonies:  (1)  the  laissez  faire  method  as  followed  in 
Virginia  and  most  of  the  Southern  colonies,  where 
secondary  and  higher  education  for  the  upper  classes 
was  fostered,  with  little  education,  except  industrial 
training  through  apprenticeship,  for  the  orphans  and  chil- 
dren of  the  poor.  Here  education  was  looked  upon  largely 
as  a  private  or  family  matter.  (2)  The  parochial  type 
as  found  in  New  Netherlands  and  in  most  of  the  middle 
colonies.  (3)  The  governmental  school  system  as  found 
in  Massachusetts  and  most  of  the  New  England  colonies. 

Period  of  Transition. — About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 


Education  335 

century  a  gradual  modification  of  educational  ideals  and 
practices  began  in  this  country,  which  continued  until  after 
the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  our 
regular  public  school  systems  had  become  more  or  less 
definitely  worked  out.  In  most  of  the  Southern  states, 
especially  in  Virginia,  it  awaited  a  sentiment  in  favor  of 
public  education.  Jefferson  in  his  time  worked  out  an 
elaborate  scheme  of  public  education,  by  which  the 
country  was  divided  into  small  districts,  each  having  its 
public  elementary  school.  From  these  schools  the  best  stu- 
dents were  chosen  to  go  to  more  advanced  schools,  where 
in  turn  the  selective  process  was  to  continue,  till  the 
best  were  finally  educated  at  public  expense  at  William 
and  Mary  College.  This  scheme  was  never  carried  out, 
but  slowly  permanent  school  funds  were  established  and 
laws  passed  establishing  public  schools.  At  first  these  met 
with  much  opposition,  both  from  the  wealthy,  who  did 
not  see  why  they  should  be  taxed  to  support  schools 
which  would  bring  them  no  good,  and  from  the  poor, 
who  resented  this  apparent  charity.  Then  for  a  long  timd 
it  was  difficult  to  secure  competent  teachers,  because 
graduates  of  colleges  and  academies  refused  to  teach  in 
the  schools  for  the  poor.  But  by  degrees  these  objections 
were  overcome  and  the  schools  increased  in  number  and 
usefulness. 

About  1800  New  York  began  to  make  appropriations 
for  public  elementary  schools,  although  it  still  neglected 
secondary  schools.  In  New  York  City  quasi-public  socie- 
ties, such  as  the  "Free  School  Society,"  later  called  the 
" Public  School  Society,"  were  forerunners  of  a  system 
of  public  instruction.  The  new  constitution  adopted  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1790  made  provision  for  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  for  the  poor,  but  the  usual  method  fol- 
lowed was  to  pay  the  tuition  of  poor  children  in  private 
schools,  till,  in  1818,  Philadelphia  established  school  dis- 
tricts and  provided  schools  upon  the  Lancastrian  plan. 
Similar  schools  were  established  in  other  places,  but  it 
was  not  until  1834  that  a  state  system  of  common  schools 
was  started,  and  even  then  it  was  done  over  much  opposi- 


336  Education 

tion.     New  Jersey  and  Delaware  were  even  slower  to 
follow  in  this  movement. 

In  Massachusetts  provision  for  public  schools  had  been 
generous,  but  instead  of  increasing  as  time  went  on,  sup- 
port of  education  decreased.  This  was  caused  partly  by 
the  hard  times  and  partly  by  the  westward  migration 
of  the  more  enterprising.  Then  the  control  of  schools 
was  changed  from  the  town  to  the  school  district;  and 
many  districts  were  either  too  poor  or  too  indifferent  to 
supply  efficient  teachers  and  equipment,  and  there  re- 
sulted a  great  deal  of  inequality  of  schools.  This  decline 
became  general  in  New  England  except  in  Rhode  Island, 
which  for  the  first  time  began  to  develop  free  public 
schools.  In  the  states  formed  from  the  old  Northwest 
Territory  (now  the  North  Central  states),  the  sentiment 
for  free  public  schools  was  stronger  than  in  most  of  the 
older  states.  Many  difficulties  were  in  the  way,  such  as 
the  poverty  of  the  pioneers,  the  sparsely  settled  country, 
poor  roads,  and  incessant  Indian  wars.  Federal  land 
grants,  however,  acted  as  a  stimulus,  and  systems  of 
public  instruction  came  into  existence  about  1825.  These 
not  only  included  free  public  instruction  through  the 
elementary  schools,  but  extended  to  the  establishment 
of  state  universities  as  well,  the  most  noted  of  which  was 
the  University  of  Michigan,  which  was  established  by 
the  legislature  of  that  state  in  1837,  and  opened  in  1841. 

Public  Education. — With  the  beginning  of  the  second 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  democratic  idea 
in  education  spread  very  rapidly.  The  older  arguments 
against  public  education  and  the  opposition  to  it  were 
broken  down.  The  unwillingness  of  the  wealthy  to  be 
taxed  to  educate  other  people's  children,  and  the  preju- 
dice against  free  public  schools  as  pauper  schools,  were 
gradually  overcome.  What  is  known  as  the  "common 
school  revival"  took  place  in  New  England  and  spread 
over  the  rest  of  the  country.  This  movement  for  public 
education  was  aided  greatly  by  the  strenuous  efforts  of 
such  able  educators  as  James  G.  Carter  (1795-1849),  a 
practical  educator,  who  advocated  normal  schools  and 


Education  337 

secured,  by  means  of  a  legislative  act  in  Massachusetts 
in  1826,  town  school  committees  and  support  for  high 
schools.  This  law  required  each  town  of  five  hundred 
families  to  support  a  free  high  school.  An  act  passed  in 
1837  secured  a  State  Board  of  Education.  Horace  Mann 
(1796-1859)  followed  Carter  and  advocated  free  and 
universal  education  for  girls  as  well  as  boys,  better 
equipped,  more  sanitary,  and  better  lighted  buildings, 
more  scientific  methods,  trained  teachers,  and  practical 
studies.  He  insisted  that  character  should  be  the  chief 
aim  of  education.  Henry  Barnard  (1811-1900)  did  much 
to  bring  before  the  public  new  methods  in  education, 
especially  through  the  American  Journal  of  Education, 
which  he  began  to  publish  at  his  own  expense. 

This  awakening  and  growth'  of  public  sentiment  was 
followed  by  a  steady  increase  in  universal  education,  state 
support  and  control,  supervision  by  local  authorities,  and 
the  organization  of  normal  schools  throughout  New  England 
and  the  Middle  states.  In  the  Western  states  those  settlers 
who  came  from  states  where  public  education  was  not  fos- 
tered were  convinced  of  the  value  of  it  by  those  who 
came  from  states  which  were  in  favor  of  public  instruction ; 
and  as  the  "West  was  settled  up,  progress  in  educational 
development  kept  pace  with  the  general  expansion  of  the 
country.  Advancement  was  also  made  in  the  Southern 
states,  but  this  was  greatly  hindered'  by  the  Civil  War, 
when  all  education  was  paralyzed  for  a  time. 

European  Educational  Systems. — During  the  past  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  centralized  state  systems  have  been 
developed  in  many  of  the  European  countries,  which  differ 
in  many  ways  from  the  educational  systems  of  the  United 
States.  The  most  important  are  perhaps  those  of  Prussia, 
France,  and  England.  In  all  these  countries  elementary 
education  is  now  free,  but  only  in  a  few  cases  is  secondary 
education  gratuitous,  and  only  in  France  is  education  en- 
tirely secularized. 

Prussia. — The  early  development  of  a  system  of  universal 
education  in  Prussia  was  due  largely  to  the  strong  line  of 
Hohenzollern  monarchs,  who,  while  despotic  and  arbitrary, 


338  Education 

were  advanced  in  thinking  and  had  the  real  interests  of 
the  people  at  heart.  This  policy  was  begun  as  early  as 
1717  by  Frederick  William  I,  who  decreed  that  wherever 
schools  existed  children  should  attend  in  winter,  and  also 
in  summer  whenever  their  parents  could  spare  their 
services.  This  policy  was  further  extended  by  Frederick 
the  Great  and  succeeding  monarchs,  and  was  given  still 
greater  impetus  by  the  conquest  of  Prussia  by  Napoleon, 
when  it  was  realized  that  a  centralized  system  was 
necessary. 

The  Prussian  system  of  schools  is  complicated,  and 
seems  unjust  to  American  minds.  The  lowest  are  the 
Volksschulen,  or  people's  schools,  which  are  free  and  open 
to  all.  These  teach  the  child  from  six  to  fourteen  years, 
but  do  not  lead  to  higher  schools ;  in  fact,  the  graduates  of 
these  schools  are  not  admitted  to  the  gymnasium,  and  after 
the  third  year  transfer  is  practically  impossible.  Thus  at 
the  age  of  nine  the  fate  of  the  child  so  far  as  education  is 
concerned  is  determined,  although  continuation  schools  are 
generally  open  to  them.  The  Volksschulen  naturally  are 
attended  mostly  by  the  lower  classes.  The  Mittelschulen, 
or  middle  schools,  are  for  the  middle  classes,  who  cannot 
send  their  children  to  the  secondary  schools,  but  who  de- 
mand better  educational  facilities  than  those  afforded  the 
common  people.  Modern  Prussian  education  consists  of 
a  system  of  secondary  schools.  Three  types  of  these  have 
developed,  the  Gymnasien,  which  place  their  emphasis  up- 
on the  classics ;  the  Realschulen,  which  specialize  in  modern 
languages,  mathematics,  and  the  natural  sciences;  and  the 
Realgymnasien,  a  compromise  between  the  two,  resulting 
from  discrimination  against  the  Realschulen,  which  were 
looked  upon  as  inferior.  The  fact  that  most  of  these  had 
only  six-year  courses,  as  compared  with  nine-year  courses 
of  the  Gymnasien,  led  to  the  introduction  of  Oberreal- 
schulen,  with  nine-year  courses.  In  rural  districts,  how- 
ever, six-year  courses  are  often  found.  Tuition  is  usually 
charged  for  secondary  education.  Of  recent  years  there 
have  come  in  the  Reformscliulen,  which  postpone  for  at 
least  three  years  the  choice  of  schools,  and  lead  up  to  all 


Education  339 

three  types  of  secondary  schools.  Surmounting  the  system 
of  secondary  schools  are  the  universities  and  "technical 
high  schools,"  the  latter  of  which  specialize  in  practical 
and  technological  aspects  or  science. 

France. — The  French  system  was  developed  later  than 
the  Prussian,  because  of  the  corruptness  of  the  Bourbon 
monarchs,  and  of  the  social  conditions  which  held  down 
the  lower  classes.  But  under  Napoleon  a  highly  cen- 
tralized system  was  developed  in  which  secondary  and 
higher  education  were  united  into  one  corporation,  known 
as  "the  University  of  France"  (1808).  Under  Louis 
Philippe  the  elementary  schools  were  organized,  and 
under  the  Third  Republic  elementary  education  was  made 
free,  compulsory,  and  secular.  The  secondary  system 
consists  of  lycees  and  communal  colleges,  which  are  con- 
sidered inferior  to  the  lycees.  These  generally  take  the 
children  at  ten  and  keep  them  till  seventeen,  when  the 
bachelor's  degree  is  conferred.  At  first  they  were  only, 
for  boys,  but  now  there  are  secondary  schools  for  girls, 
with  a  course  ordinarily  two  years  shorter.  They  are 
not  free,  but  as  they  are  heavily  subsidized  by  the  state 
the  tuition  is  small.  This  system  was  really  initiated  by 
Napoleon,  who  established  universities,  one-half  of  which 
were  later  suppressed.  Now  there  are  universities  in 
fifteen  of  the  sixteen  educational  divisions  of  France. 

England. — Progress  was  still  slower  towards  universal 
education  in  England,  because  there  was  neither  a 
despotic  government  to  establish  such  a  system,  nor  a 
popular  revolution  to  overcome  opposition  to  it.  Con- 
sequently national  education  was  a  slow  evolution,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 
any  sentiment  for  universal  education  appeared.  Then 
the  upper  classes  strove  to  keep  education  away  from 
the  lower  classes;  and  control  of  the  means  of  education 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  church.  Gradually  education 
was  extended  to  the  masses,  but  it  was  not  until  1870 
that  schools  in  charge  of  school  boards  chosen  by  the 
people  (known  as  "board  schools")  were  established, 
to  fill  in  vacancies  in  the  previous  systems.  Denomina- 


340  Education 

tional  or  "voluntary"  schools  shared  with  these  in  re- 
ceiving government  grants,  but  they  did  not  receive  local 
"rates."  Towards  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century 
free  tuition  and  compulsory  attendance  until  the  age  of 
twelve  were  provided.  In  1899  a  Central  Board  of  Edu- 
cation was  established.  But  secondary  education  was  not 
unified  until  1902.  During  the  nineteenth  century  the 
monopoly  held  by  the  classics  and  the  control  by 
ecclesiastical  authorities  were  broken,  and  more  attention 
was  given  to  modern  languages  and  to  the  natural 
sciences.  The  secondary  systems  in  England  lead  up  to 
the  universities  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  and  the  various 
provincial  universities. 

Scientific  Tendency  in  Education. — During  the  past  two 
centuries  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  stress  placed 
upon  the  natural  sciences.  This  has  been  of  particular 
importance  since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  movement  was  greatly  fostered  by  the  development 
of  the  theory  of  evolution,  by  scientific  discoveries,  and 
the  practical  application  of  their  results.  The  theory  was 
advanced  by  such  practical  educators  as  Darwin,  Huxley, 
Spencer,  and  Elliot,  that  such  training  would  not  only 
be  of  vastly  greater  use  to  the  average  person  than  the 
older  training  in  the  classics,  but  would  furnish  as  good 
mental  discipline  as  well.  This  movement  of  course  met 
with  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  followers  of  the 
classics,  but  has  continually  gained  headway,  until  now 
science  has  gradually  been  included  not  only  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  schools  of  higher  education,  but  even 
in  those  of  the  secondary  and  elementary  schools  of  Ger- 
many, France,  England,  and  the  United  States. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  in  the  colleges  and 
universities  an  equally  strong  tendency  to  emphasize  the 
importance  of  the  social  sciences,  and  this  movement  bids 
fair  to  extend  to  the  secondary  schools. 

Present  Tendencies. — While  in  the  past  we  have  made 
great  strides  in  educational  progress,  we  are  not  content 
to  stop,  but  are  progressing  faster  now  than  at  almost 
any  previous  time.  Because  of  the  recent  great  indus- 


Education  341 

trial  tendency,  industrial,  commercial,  and  agricultural 
training  have  been  incorporated  into  the  school  systems 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  In  Germany  and 
France  industrial  training  is  carried  on  in  continuation 
schools,  where  both  theory  and  practice  are  taught.  In 
the  United  States  training  of  this  sort  began  in  evening 
schools  and  was  later  carried  on  in  day  schools,  both 
public  and  private.  It  has  now  become  an  important  part 
of  our  secondary  school  system,  and  is  taught  in  many 
high  schools  and  colleges  as  one  of  the  regular  courses. 
It  is  also  carried  on  in  schools  especially  designed  for 
this  work.  In  Germany  commercial  subjects  are  taught 
in  private  continuation  schools  and  in  secondary  and 
university  courses. 

Until  recently  the  study  of  commerce  was  much 
neglected  in  both  France  and  England,  but  in  recent  years 
England  has  remedied  this  defect.  In  America  this  study 
has  been  carried  on  chiefly  in  "business  colleges"  and 
in  courses  in  secondary  schools  and  colleges.  Advanced 
work  in  business  training  is  now  being  done  by  our  lead- 
ing colleges  and  universities  in  departments  of  business 
administration. 

In  Germany  and  France  much  has  been  done  in  agri- 
cultural training  in  an  introductory  way.  The  United 
States  probably  leads  all  countries  in  the  establishment 
and  perfection  of  special  agricultural  schools.  Land 
grant  acts  by  Congress  did  much  for  the  establishment 
of  agricultural  colleges.  Agricultural  work  is  also  being 
extended  to  our  high  schools,  and  the  latest  develop- 
ment of  this  movement  is  in  the  way  of  special  agricul- 
tural high  schools. 

During  the  last  few  years  Europe  has  paid  a  great 
deal  of  attention  to  moral  training,  and  this  subject  is 
attracting  considerable  attention  in  the  United  States, 
largely  because  of  the  greatly  increasing  impersonal  re- 
lationships in  our  business  life. 

While  the  evolution  of  education  has  been  largely  the 
development  of  the  spirit  of  individualization,  recent 
tendencies  have  molded  the  educational  systems  so  as 


342  Education 

to  make  them  more  useful  to  society,  and  at  the  same 
time  preserve  the  growth  of  individualism.  In  this 
way  education  is  striving  to  be  more  useful  to  both  the 
individual  and  society;  it  aims  not  only  to  train  the  indi- 
vidual to  become  part  of  the  social  fabric,  but  also  to 
enable  society  to  do  more  for  the  individual.  Schools 
have  been  developed  for  the  training  of  defectives,  for 
the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  dull,  the  truant,  and  even  for 
those  possessing  such  peculiarities  as  stammering  and  for 
those  afflicted  with  tuberculosis.  Instead  of  forcing  those 
who  are  handicapped  into  the  regular  schools  we  now 
establish  special  schools  for  them.  More  and  more  atten- 
tion is  being  paid  to  school  hygiene  and  care  for  the 
health  of  the  pupils ;  to  the  improvement  of  school  archi- 
tecture; and  to  making  teachers  more  efficient  by  giving 
greater  consideration  to  the  profession.  Experiments 
recently  carried  on  by  such  men  as  Dewey  in  his  experi- 
mental school  at  the  University  of  Chicago  and  by  the 
now  famous  Gary  school  plan,  are  bringing  about  a  more 
effective  use  of  the  school  plant.  The  school  is  made 
more  attractive  and  useful  by  means  of  rotation  and 
variation  of  school  activities.  Surveys  and  experiments 
are  constantly  being  made,  and  our  whole  educational 
system  is  being  overhauled  and  reorganized  so  that  it 
may  become  more  efficient  and  useful  to  society.  One 
result  of  the  Great  War  will  undoubtedly  be  a  radical 
change  in  our  educational  systems  and  ideals,  especially 
along  the  lines  of  standardization  and  efficiency,  the 
elimination  of  waste,  and  the  construction  of  useful 
courses  of  study.  This  first  took  the  form  of  greater 
encouragement  of  scientific  studies,  but  now  is  placing 
greater  stress  on  courses  of  study  leading  to  social  effi- 
ciency. 


GRAVES,  F.  P.,  A  Student's  History  of  Education. 

MONROE,  PAUL,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education. 

HORNE,  H.  H.,  The  Philosophy  of  Education. 

GRAVES,  F.  P.,  A  History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times. 


Education  343 

GRAVES,  F.  P.,  History  of  Education  During  the  Middle  Ages 

and  the  Transition  to  Modern  Times. 

GRAVES,  F.  P.,  A  History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages. 
MONROE,  PAUL,  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education,  for 

the  Greek  and  Roman  Period. 
KIRKPATRICK,  E.   A.,  Fundamentals  of  Education,  Chaps.  XI, 

XII,  XIII,  and  XIV. 

THOMAS,  W.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Part  II. 
WEEKS,  ARL.VKD  D.,  The  Education  of  To-morrow. 


PART  FOUR 

CHAPTER  XVI 

INSTINCTS,  FEELING,  AND  INTELLECT 

In  order  to  get  an  idea  of  how  society  is  made  up  we 
must  study  the  forces  that  control  society  and  the 
motives  that  prompt  man  to  act.  Before  we  do  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  what  kind  of  a  being  man  is.  It 
is  with  this  phase  of  the  subject  that  the  present  chapter 
deals.  While  man  began  as  an  animal  among  animals, 
he  was  a  superior  one,  being  endowed  with  physical, 
mental  and  moral  faculties  not  enjoyed  by  other  members 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  In  many  ways,  especially  in  strength, 
speed,  and  endurance,  he  was  easily  excelled  by  many 
animals  whom  he  nevertheless  conquered  because  of  his 
superior  mentality.  While  in  this  work  we  shall  make  no 
pretense  to  a  psychological  analysis  of  man  or  even  a  study 
of  his  mental  machinery,  we  must  consider  the  psychological 
side  of  sociology  and  try  to  identify  the  impulses  that  prompt 
man  to  dominate  and  weigh  the  forces  that  control  his 
'action.  While  man  is  controlled  largely  by  his  environ- 
ment, which  we  have  previously  considered,  that  is  not 
all,  for  he  inherits  characteristics  which  to  a  great  extent 
determine  his  behavior.  This  is  true  not  only  of  the 
individual  but  of  mankind  in  general. 

Instincts.1  —  The  instincts,  or  innate  impulses  or 
tendencies,  are  directly  or  indirectly  the  prime  movers 
of  human  activity,  the  mainsprings  to  action.  Without 

1  The  present  writer  fully  realizes  the  recent  criticism  of  the  pre- 
vailing attitude  towards  instincts  by  such  scholars  as  Professor 
Paris  and  Professor  Bernard  but  it  seems  a  bit  too  early  at  the  present 
writing  to  follow  the  treatment  of  these  critics  in  an  elementary  work 
of  this  nature.  The  reader  'a  attention  is  called  to  papers  by  the  above 

345 


346  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

ithem  society  would  be  inert  and  lifeless.  We  ordinarily; 
associate  instinct  with  animals,  but  when  we  look  into 
/the  matter  carefully,  we  find  that  man  has  many  instincts 
/  in  common  with  them.  Because  of  the  complexity  of  these 
instinctive  impulses  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  classify 
them,  for  it  is  impossible  to  separate  entirely  any  one 
instinct  or  set  of  instincts  from  others  as  they  are  bound 
up  even  more  closely  than  are  the  muscles  of  the  body. 
Even  if  we  tried  to  analyze  them  carefully,  such  a  treat- 
ment would  not  help  us  much  in  sociology,  for  we  are 
interested  in  them  rather  as  motives  for  action  and  as 
means  of  social  control.  Psychologists  have  studied  the 
instincts  in  detail,  but  sociologists  have  not  treated  the 
matter  closely,  Ellwood 2  being  about  the  only  modern 
sociologist  who  gives  anything  like  a  clear-cut  treatment 
of  the  subject.  It  is  to  social  psychologists,  like 
McDougall^  that  we  are  obliged  to  turn  for  information 
along  this  line.  We  must  not  look  upon  instincts  as 
being  incapable  of  modification,  for  even  animal  instincts 
may  be  trained. ~  Also  instincts  must  have  stimuli  to 
develop  them,  and  they  are  conditioned  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  character  of  these  stimuli.  Instincts  do  not  neces- 
sarily exclude  consciousness  and  intellect,  for  both  of 
these  are  often  present,  serving  to  guide  the  instincts. 
We  must  ther^forelook  upon  instincts  as  innate  tenden- 
cies to^perceiveTto^  pay  attention  to  objects,  tor  experience 
emotionaTeicitem ent  of  ascertain  nature  upon  perceiving 
such  objects,  and  to  act  or  experience  some  impulse  to 
act  upon  such  perception. 

Human  instincts  are  not  hard  and  fast  as  we  find  them 
,mong  animals,  but  are  more  or  less  generalized  tenden- 
ies  to  act,  thus  enabling  man  the  better  to  cope  with 

professors  which  were  read  before  the  American  Sociological  Society 
in  its  annual  meeting  in  Pittsburgh  in  December,  1921,  which  are 
indicated  in  the  references  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

3  Ellwood,  Charles  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chap. 
IX.  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Chaps.  IX-XI. 

'McDougall,  William,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  also 
Mind  and  Body. 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect  347 

his  environment,  furnishing  a  starting  point  for  mental 
and  social  life,  and  supplying  a  basis  for  habits.  Almost 
every  human  instinct  has  its  parallel  or  counterpart  in 
animal  life.  In  our  analysis  we  shall  take  up  those 
instincts  or  groups  of  instinctive  impulses  that  center 
about  certain  modes  of  action.  Although  these  impulses 
often  conflict  and  are  intricately  interwoven,  we  shall 
treat  them  separately. 

Food  Instinct. — In  common  with  other  members  of  the 
animal  kingdom  man  has  the  instinct  to  obtain  nourish- 
ment for  himself.  This  is  clearly  seen  in  the  infant,  for  it 
does  not  have  to  be  taught  to  nurse,  but  merely  needs 
to  be  put  into  contact  with  its  mother's  breast.  While 
subject  to  instruction  and  direction,  the  same  impulse 
operates  throughout  life  in  the  effort  to  obtain  food.  In 
the  early  history  of  man  it  results  in  the  gathering  of 
roots,  fruits,  nuts,  and  shellfish,  and  later  in  the  instinct 
to  hunt  and  fish.  This  impulse  is  sharpened  by  the  pangs 
of  hunger  and  encouraged  by  the  physical  satisfaction 
given  by  the  consumption  of  food.  It  is_purel^an_animal 
instinct,  altliQugh  with  man  it  is  under_greater  control 
than  with_the_  animals.  With  further  development  it 
takes  the  form  of  impulse  to  work,  so  as  to  insure  a  supply 
of  food  the  year  round.  Thus  it  is  at  the  basis  of  the 
food  interest  of  man  and  to  a  large  extent  of  the  motives 
that  prompt  our  economic  and  industrial  activity.  It 
also*  leads  to  storing  of  food  and  thus  stimulates  inven- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  produces  perversities  such 
as  stealing,  begging,  and  the  exploitation  of  others  by 
means  of  slavery,  serfdom,  low  wages,  and  similar  means. 

Instincts  Connected  with  Reproduction. — Another  im- 
pulse that  man  has  in  common  with  his  animal  neighbors 
is  the  instinct  to  continue  the  race.  It  is  stronger  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female.  Also~under  this  heading  there 
come  two  great  primary  instincts — sex  attraction,  and 
parental  love.  These  are  vitally  connected  and  include 
many  deviations  and  variations.  Out  of  these  have  grown 
sexual  love  and  family  affection  and  upon  them  we  have 


348  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intelkct 

built  our  institution  of  the  family  and  the  various  forms 
of  marriage,  and  our  care  of  aged  parents  and  the  weaker 
members  of  the  family.  From  the  care  of  the  children 
develops  sympathy,  which  is  the  basis  of  altruism.  While 
animals,  noticeably  the  higher  animals,  have  affection 
for  the  offspring,  exhibited  especially  by  the  mother,  it 
dies  out  much  quicker  than  with  man  and  is  generally 
limited  in  time  to  the  period  ending  with  the  arrival 
of  the  next  young.  The  lower  we  go  in  the  animal  scale, 
the  larger  we  find  the  number  of  offspring  to  be,  as  a 
rule,  and  the  greater  the  decrease  of  this  impulse;  so  it 
is  only  natural  that  man,  who  has  fewer  offspring  than 
almost  any  animal,  should  exhibit  this  impulse  in  a 
stronger  manner  than  the  animals.  The  reproductive 
instinct  in  itself  is  not  so  regular,  and  is  under  greater 
control  with  man  than  with  the  animals  because  of  man's 
superior  intellect  and  powers  of  control.  By  means  of 
conscious  direction  and  control  these  instincts  of  man 
have  led  to  the  development  of  man's  loftiest  impulses 
and  to  the  molding  of  some  of  his  greatest  and  most 
uplifting  institutions  and  achievements. 

Instinct  of  Self-Preservation. — The  food,  reproductive, 
and  self-preservatory  impulses  may  be  called  the  primary 
impulses  of  man,  being  common  to  both  man  and  animals. 
The  third  mentioned  is  an  instinct  of  man  to  avoid  danger, 
either  to  fly  from  its  presence  or  to  keep  out  of  its  reach. 
This  has  been  necessary  to  man's  very  existence,  espe- 
cially during  the  infancy  of  the  race,  when  man  was 
poorly  equipped  to  combat  with  the  dangers  besetting 
him.  The  child  must  also  have  the  fear  instinct,  in  order 
to  live  when  outside  the  protection  of  its  parents.  It 
causes  fear  or  terror  at  sight  of  danger,  flight  or  con- 
cealment from  that  danger,  and  later  the  knack  of  keep- 
ing out  of  its  way.  Man  is  equipped  with  nerves  which 
warn  him  through  pain  of  danger  to  his  body,  such  as 
danger  from  cold,  excessive  heat,  bruising  or  tearing  of 
the  body;  and  the  mind  is  equipped  with  memory  to  tell 
him  to  avoid  these  dangers  in  the  future.  Man's  sensory 
organs,  while  in  many  ways  inferior  to  those  of  animals, 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect  349 

enable  him  to  see,  hear,  smell,  or  taste  approaching 
danger.  The  child  exhibits  this  instinct  of  fear  in  the 
presence  of  the  unfamiliar  or  unusual,  often  indeed  when 
its  intelligence  tells  it  that  there  is  no  real  danger.  The 
instinct  of  fear  haunts  man,  and  while  it  often  saves  his 
life,  it  prevents  him  at  times  from  achieving  what  he 
otherwise  might ;  and  because  of  this  it  is  an  impulse  that 
man  wishes  to  conceal  or  overcome.  With  the  greater 
protection  afforded  by  society  its  utility  diminishes.  This 
instinct  has  been  one  of  the  motive  forces  of  invention; 
akin  to  it  is  our  next  class.  v 

Instinct  of  Pugnacity  and  Resentment. — TJie  desire  to 
attack  or  to  hold  a  grudge  is  not  so  universal  as  that  of 
fear,  being  in  fact  quite  weak  among  females  of  some 
species.  It  is  much  stronger  in  some  people  than  in 
others,  and  is  generally  much  more  pronounced  among 
males  than  females.  While  the  instinct  for  fighting  is 
used  for  defense,  it  also  prompts  offense  and  even  oppres- 
sion of  others.  Its  use  is  strengthened  by  other  instincts, 
such  as  that  of  acquisition;  but  it  is  the  direct  inspira- 
tion to  warfare  and  conquest,  and  without  it  these  would 
be  very  difficult.  By  means  of  it  the  strongest  have  sur- 
vived and  the  best  elements  have  been  preserved,  and 
races  having  it  more  than  others  have  advanced  and 
progressed,  while  those  lacking  it  have  been  exterminated 
or  overrun. 

The  impulse  of  resentment  comes  into  evidence  when 
any  attempt  is  made  upon  the  rights  of  a  person;  the 
one  injured  or  molested  shows  his  resentment  in  the 
emotion  of  anger.  Without  the  instinct  of  pugnacity  or 
resentment  anger  would  be  impossible.  As  society 
progresses,  we  control  the  emotions  of  anger  more  and 
more,  priding  ourselves  upon  our  control  rather  than 
upon  our  resentment.  This  instinct  has  been  very  useful 
to  man,  although  when  allowed  to  run  to  excess  it  has 
been  the  cause  of  endless  injustices,  misery,  and  destruc- 
tion. When  properly  controlled  this  instinct  is  very  valu- 
able to  man,  for  it  inspires  him  to  conquer  and  succeed. 
Without  it  one  is  destined  to  serve  rather  than  to  lead. 


350  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

!  Closely  connected  with,  and  possibly  belonging  to  the 
same  class  of  instincts  as  pugnacity  and  resentment,  are 
those  of  rivalry  and  emulation.  These  are  coming  into 
much  greater  development  and  use;  they  work  towards 
the  same  ends  as  the  anger  and  fighting  instinct.  The 
sentiment  of  jealousy  is  related  to  that  of  resentment, 
generally  carrying  with  it  some  recognition  of  weakness, 
;  or  admission  that  some  one  else  has  or  is  enjoying  some- 
thing which  is  desired  for  one's  self,  whether  it  be  the 
caress  given  the  child,  a  piece  of  candy,  or  the  beautiful 
iwife  of  another.  It  is  a  feeling  of  resentment  against 
the  success  of  another  person.  While  generally  con- 
demned and  as  far  as  possible  held  in  restraint,  it,  too, 
is  often  a  mainspring  of  action.  It  is  frequently  the 
inotive  of  injustice  and  crime. 

Instinct  of  Sociability. — In  spite  of  his  tendency  to 
fight,  and  notwithstanding  the  influence  of  his  struggles 
upon  the  progress  of  civilization,  man  has  an  innate  crav- 
ing for  companionship.  Professor  Giddings  has  built  up 
an  extremely  complicated  and  interesting  system  of  soci- 
ology upon  this  one  tendency  of  man.  Not  only  is  one 
person  attracted  to  another,  but  he  is  attracted  especially 
by  the  same  kind  of  person.  This  impulse  was  important 
in  the  early  history  of  man,  for  it  resulted  in  alliances  for 
the  sake  of  protection  and  of  making  a  living.  As  we 
shall  find  in  our  next  chapter,  the  sociability  interest  is 
also  strong  in  society  to-day  and  is  the  basis  of  much 
of  our  companionship.  Few  of  us  care  to  be  alone  for 
any  length  of  time;  we  crave  companionship,  we  want 
some  one  to  whom  we  may  communicate  our  feelings, 
thoughts,  and  desires.  This  gregarious  impulse  is  inter- 
woven with  many  of  our  activities.  It  is  one  of  the  factors 
in  the  growth  of  cities  and  in  the  formation  of  groups. 
Out  of  it  develops  loyalty  to  the  group,  which  results 
in  the  spirit  of  patriotism.  Love  of  the  praise  or  approval 
of  others  is  a  phase  of  it.  Desire  to  show  off  or  attract 
attention  is  simply  an  expression  of  this  instinct  or  group 
of  instincts.  While  not  the  most  fundamental  instinct, 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect  351 

it  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  life  of 
society. 

Instinct  of  Possession. — Another  innate  tendency  or 
impulse  of  man  is  to  possess  objects  which  are  useful  to 
him,  objects  that  he  desires.  This  probably  manifested 
itself  first  in  the  possession  of,  or  claim  to,  a  mate.  Later 
it  was  extended  to  weapons,  tools,  and  all  other  forms  of 
wealth.  This  is  an  instinct  which  has  played  a  powerful 
role  in  the  history  of  mankind,  for  it  has  motivated  wars, 
migrations,  invasions;  it  has  caused  man  to  labor  and 
to  compel  others  to  labor  for  him ;  it  has  built  up  industry; 
it  has  in  fact  entered  into  every  phase  of  man's  existence, 
It  is  generally  coupled  with  other  impulses,  such  as  the 
food  instinct,  and  as  a  social  factor  frequently  is  sup- 
plemented by  other  desires. 

Instinct  of  Construction. — Every  child  wants  to  build 
or  make  something.  With  his  blocks  he  constructs  build- 
ings, roads,  towers,  and  bridges.  With  dirt  he  makes 
mud  pies,  and  with  sticks  he  devises  playthings.  The 
Kaffir  child  of  four  will  make  intricate  bird  traps.  In 
short,  it  is  an  innate  impulse  of  man  to  make  things.  It 
is  this  instinct  which  underlies  invention.  The  need  of 
something,  joined  with  the  impulse  to  make,  caused  the 
invention  to  be  achieved,  not  suddenly,  of  course,  but  by 
various  steps. 

Instinct  of  Imitation. — As  soon  as  man  sees  something 
which  he  considers  good,  he  immediately  starts  to  imitate 
it,  whether  it  be  language,  a  weapon,  a  method  of  cook- 
ing, a  trick  in  hunting  or  fishing,  a  tool,  a  strategy  in 
war,  an  article  of  ornament,  a  dance,  a  song,  a  religious 
belief,  a  form  of  government,  or  in  fact  any  achievement 
or  institution  whatever.  The  child  exhibits  this  impulse 
as  soon  as  it  is  capable  of  appreciating  the  desirability; 
of  things.  We  see  this  instinct  in  operation  in  regard 
to  styles,  particularly  in  regard  to  clothing;  it  operates 
also  in  all  places  of  our  daily  life,  in  cooking,  eating, 
social  habits,  forms  of  speech,  selection  of  furniture,  in 
the  spread  of  fads  and  in  all  other  phases  of  life.  So 


352  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

strong  is  this  impulse  that  Professor  Tarde  attempted  to 
build  a  whole  system  of  sociology  upon  it,  in  much  the 
same  manner  that  Professor  Giddings  based  his  system  on 
the  sociability  instinct.  While  without  question  a  strong 
impulse,  it  is  by  no  means  the  key  to  all  social  activity. 

Instincts  of  Self-Assertion  and  Self-Abasement. — Both 
of  these  instincts  are  conspicuous  in  the  animal  world, 
the  male  strutting  around,  showing  off  his  plumage  or 
marks  of  physical  adornment,  before  his  mates.  The 
smaller  and  weaker  animal  has  the  opposite  impulse  and 
slinks  away,  trying  to  avoid  observation,  thus  abasing 
itself  in  recognition  of  the  superiority  of  another.  The 
child  exhibits  the  same  impulses.  As  soon  as  the  baby 
acquires  a  new  art  or  trick,  such  as  walking,  or  jumping 
over  some  little  object,  it  desires  the  approbation  of 
others  and  is  displeased  if  this  is  not  shown.  As  it  grows 
older,  it  exhibits  the  same  traits  when  it  calls  to  its  play- 
mates to  see  it  do  this  or  that. 

Pride  is  a  strong  factor  in  life ;  it  is  the  cause  of  boast- 
ing and  vanity;  the  impulse  motivates,  to  a  large  extent, 
the  wearing  'of  fashionable  clothing  and  ornament, 
whether  it  be  a  silk  dress  or  a  bark  loin  cloth,  a  pearl 
necklace  or  a  brass  nose  ring.  It  is  the  instinct  of  pride 
which  causes  some  people  to  assume  an  air  of  superiority, 
whether  there  is  any  ground  for  it  or  not.  It  is  the 
opposite  instinct  that  causes  others  to  exhibit  an  attitude 
of  deference  to  those  regarded  as  their  superiors.  The 
child  displays  this  same  tendency,  shrinking  from  a 
stranger  even  when  it  does  not  fear  him.  In  this  impulse 
we  may  find  the  rudiments  of  shame,  which,  however,  is 
not  considered  an  innate  tendency,  but  one  which  is  de- 
veloped through  experience.  These  two  instincts  are 
never  outlived;  they  are  found  in  all  ages,  situations, 
and  conditions  of  life.  "While  minor  factors,  they  have 
constantly  played  their  part  in  man's  development. 

Closely  akin  to  them  are  the  instincts  of  repulsion  and 
disgust,  which  are  aroused  by  the  sight  of  a  snake  or  any- 
thing that  is  considered  loathsome.  These  are  opposed  to 
the  impulse  of  sociability. 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect          353 

Reference  should  also  be  made  to  the  instincts  of  wonder 
and  curiosity,  which  cause  man  to  attempt  to  find  out 
things,  and  thus  lead  him  to  acquire  information  and 
knowledge. 

Play. — While  hardly  an  instinct,  play  must  be  treated 
as  a  native  tendency  of  the  mind  which  performs  an 
important  function  in  the  social  life  of  man.  Many  people 
have  attempted  to  explain  play  by  means  of  some  single 
theory,  but  like  most  phases  of  social  activity  it  has  more 
than  one  origin  and  explanation.  Schiller  ascribed  play 
to  the  expression  of  one's  surplus  energy.  While  un* 
doubtedly  a  cause  or  explanation  of  a  great  deal  of  play, 
especially  of  young  children,  we  cannot  give  this  theory 
the  importance  placed  upon  it  by  Herbert  Spencer.  It 
is  true  that  a  person  is  most  inclined  to  play-when  well 
nourished  and  free  from  exhaustion,  but  the  same  person- 
may  play  until  utterly  exhausted,  as  in  a  football  game 
or  tennis  match.  Others  maintain  that  in  his  play  the 
child  retraces  the  periods  passed  through  by  his  ancestors, 
engaging  in  games  of  hunting,  playing  with  animals,  etc., 
thus  representing  the  different  stages  of  progress.  Thfe 
theory  is  not  widely  accepted  to-day.  Groos  4  put  forward 
a  theory  that  play  acts  as  a  preparation  for  the  serious 
business  of  life;  that  the  kitten  chases  the  ball  over  the 
floor,  thus  preparing  for  the  more  serious  chasing  of  the 
mouse  in  later  life ;  that  the  child  in  his  play  prepares  it- 
self for  the  work  of  life,  the  girl  playing  with  dolls,  mak- 
ing mud  pies,  and  imitating  the  work  of  her  mother,  and 
the  boy  imitating  that  of  his  father  by  playing  horse, 
building  houses,  etc. 

While  this  undoubtedly  is  a  valid  explanation  of  a  great 
deal  of  play  during  early  youth,  when  the  child  is  under 
the  impulse  to  imitate  its  elders,  it  does  not  explain  all 
play.  It  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  elements 
of  emulation  and  rivalry,  which  exert  such  an  important 
influence  in  our  modern  games,  such  as  baseball,  tennis, 
basketball,  hockey,  and  football;  or  such  sports  as  box- 
ing, wrestling,  running,  and  swimming;  or  even  such 

•  .Groos,  Karlj  The  Play  of  Animals  and  The  Play  of  Man. 


354  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

quiet  games  as.  chess,  checkers,  and  cards.  In  fact,  one 's 
activities  are  too  complex  and  varied  to  be  explained  by 
any  one  theory,  and  furthermore  no  real  line  can  be 
drawn  between  work  and  play.  To  many  their  life  occu- 
pation is  simply  a  game,  and  the  spirit  of  emulation  and 
rivalry  is  as  strong  as  on  the  athletic  field. 

The  spirit  of  play  is  much  more  highly  developed  among 
some  peoples  than  among  others,  being  very  extensively 
cultivated  among  the  European  races;  of  these  peoples 
the  English  and  their  descendants  take  the  lead.  The 
Orientals  cannot  see  why  Europeans  or  Americans  exert 
themselves  upon  the  tennis  court,  football  field,  or  base- 
ball diamond,  asking  if  it  would  not  be  possible  to  hire 
coolies  to  do  that  work.  The  spirit  of  play  can,  however, 
be  developed;  for  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  rapidly 
adopting  our  games,  especially  baseball  and  tennis.  Play 
gives  a  chance  to  exercise  the  primitive  instincts  and 
motives,  and  to  develop  individuality.  In  past  times  this 
impulse  was  discouraged,  but  to-day  we  are  almost  going 
to  the  opposite  extreme  by  giving  it  too  great  a  freedom. 
It  does  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  to  train  the  child 
and  to  develop  those  needed  qualities,  such  as  self-control 
and  sportsmanship,  as  well  as  to  build  up  a  physique  for 
life's  battles.  The  child  who  cannot  play,  being  deprived 
of  playmates  or  opportunity  to  exercise  this  innate 
tendency,  is  sorely  handicapped  for  life.  So  important 
is  the  spirit  of  play,  that  it  is  being  incorporated  more 
and  more  into  our  school  systems,  its  educational  values 
being  almost  unlimited.  It  is  one  of  those  normal  tenden- 
cies which  must  be  directed  and  controlled;  if  wisely 
utilized,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  gifts  with  which 
man  has  been  endowed. 

While  instincts  are  present  as  motive  forces  in  prac- 
tically all  human  beings,  they  vary  greatly  in  degree, 
some  being  much  stronger  in  one  individual  than  in  an- 
other. This  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the  greater  ability 
and  success  of  certain  persons  compared  with  that  of 
others.  They  differ  also  between  the  sexes:  the  female, 
being  endowed  with  stronger  sympathetic  and  social 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect  355 

impulses,  is  guided  more  by  instinct  and  emotion  than 
is  the  male.  On  the  other  hand,  the  male  has  the  com- 
bative or  pugnacious  impulse  to  a  much  higher  degree 
than  the  female.  Sometimes  the  male  is  referred  to  as 
being  katabolic,  or  inclined  to  expend  energy,  being  more 
active;  while  the  female  is  anabolic,  or  inclined  to  store 
up  energy,  being  more  passive  and  conservative. 

While  we  must  recognize  this  as  an  innate  difference, 
we  must  remember  also  that  social  conditions  have 
emphasized  it.  Society  has  hedged  woman  about  with 
restrictions,  and  she  therefore  has  not  had  an  equal 
chance  with  man  for  development,  either  mentally  or 
physically.  Woman 's  inferior  physique  to-day  is  to  a  great 
extent  the  result  of  social  conditions,  for  custom  and  habit 
have  prevented  her  from  developing  her  muscles.  Her 
activity  has  been  restricted  by  skirts,  corsets,  and  high' 
heeled  shoes,  and  her  health  has  often  been  ruined  by 
disregard  of  the  rules  of  health.  While  neither  sex  can 
be  said  to  be  superior  mentally,  there  is  undoubtedly  a 
mental  difference  between  the  male  and  the  female,  al- 
though not  to  such  a  marked  degree  as  in  the  case  of  the 
physical.  As  we  have  pointed  out  in  another  chapter, 
we  cannot  claim  mental  superiority  for  one  race  over 
another ;  the  difference  is  a  matter  of  individuals  and  not 
of  races.  Similarly,  while  the  sexes  differ  in  innate 
characteristics,  we  cannot  claim  superiority  for  either  sex. 

Although  instincts  were  more  important  with  primitive 
man  than  with  civilized  man  (because  civilization  is  able 
to  train  and  educate  man,  so  that  he  is  less  dependent 
iipon  innate  impulses),  they  cannot  be  ignored  in  an 
analysis  of  present-day  society.  But  under  modern  con- 
ditions they  alone  are  not  safe  guides;  they  must  be 
supplemented  and  controlled  by  reason  and  intelligence. 
While  education  does  not  supplant  them,  it  organizes 
them  and  increases  their  usefulness.  Ellwood  sums 
their  usefulness  as  follows  :5 


'Ellwood,  Charles  A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  pp. 
245-6. 


356  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

"The  native  impulses  are,  then,  from  the  psycho- 
logical point  of  view  the  basis  of  man's  social  life. 
Representing  the  innate  or  the  biological  element  in 
the  relationships  of  individuals,  they  are  necessarily 
the  raw  material  out  of  which  the  social  life  is  de- 
veloped. They  aj^Lthe_£sychological  expression  of  the 
biological  forces  of  selection  and  heredity  as  these  lat- 
ter ^eTTiip~ln~Tlie~l5oclaTffi 

While  they  furnish  only  the  beginnings  of  social 
organization,  that  is,  only  certain  simpler  co-ordinations 
between  individuals,  it  is  their  modification  by  feeling 
and  intelligence,  functioning  with  respect  to  environ- 
ment, which  produces  the  acquired  habits  out  of  which 
all  higher  forms  of  social  co-ordination  and  social 
organization  must  issue.  Concealed  beneath  these 
acquired  modes  of  behavior  or  conduct  in  the  individual 
and  in  society,  behind  them  all,  are  always  the  various 
instinctive  impulses.  As  they  represent  the  original 
motor  activities,  they  may  well  be  characterized,  there- 
fore, as  the  r°aLpT'f>po11ing  fftr^fa  nf  society,  since  the 
feelings  and  emotions.  _aa_has  been  already  pointed 
out,  do  not  lie  behind  these  activities  but  rather 
"accompany^^hem!  The  physiological  impulses,  then, 
which  when  viewed  from  the  psychological  side,  we 
term  instincts,  are  the  true  primary  forces  of  human 
society,  the  ultimate  springs  of  all  activity;  and  the 
guidance  and  control  through  the  education  of  the  in- 
dividual and  the  organization  of  social  relationships 
between  individuals,  that  is,  their  control  through 
reason,  is  the  ultimate  practical  problem  of  human 
social  life." 

N 

Feeling1. — Feeling  is  another  element  of  human  nature 
which  has  been  either  neglected  or  exaggerated  by  the 
sociologist.  It  is  closely  allied  with  instinct  and  forms 
a  sort  of  connecting  link  between  instinct  and  intellect. 
It  is  shared,  although  in  differing  degrees,  by  both  man 
and  animals.  Professor  Ward 6  treats  feeling  as  the 

•  Ward,  Lester  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chap.  VI. 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect  357 

dynamic  agent  of  society,  believing  that  it  resulted  from 
life  and  that  intellect  developed  from  feeling.  He  pos- 
tulates that  feeling  was  the  true  propelling  force  for 
both  animals  and  man.  He  places  a  very  broad  inter- 
pretation upon  feeling,  however,  treating  it  as  identical 
with  desire,  as  embracing  all  wants,  volitions,  and  aspira- 
tions. In  short,  he  treats  feeling  as  synonymous  with 
desire — an  interpretation  that  is  entirely  too  broad.  Feel- 
ings are  sometimes  called  the  emotional  side  of  instinct, 
and  it  is  with  such  a  conception  of  feeling  that  sociology 
is  particularly  interested.  Man  is  more  or  less  an  emo- 
tional creature.  He  is  subject  to,  and  affected  constantly 
in  his  everyday  actions  by,  such  emotions  as  joy,  envy, 
admiration,  gratitude,  reverence,  loathing,  scorn,  re- 
proach, jealousy,  revenge,  shame,  bashfulness,  pity,  hap- 
piness, and  sorrow.  While  feeling  is  not  the  primary 
factor  or  the  chief  end  in  life,  it  is  an  element  which 
must  be  recognized  as  affecting  human  action.  Says 
Professor  Ellwood:7 

"Feeling  is,  then,  a  powerful  factor  in  determining 
the  coadaptation  of  individuals  to  one  another  in 
society.  Feeling  attitudes  of  individuals  towards  each 
other  not  only  express  the  relation  of  their  habitual 
activities,  but  also  continually  modify  these  activities. 
While  in  the  main  feeling  is  a  somewhat  conservative 
and  passive  influence  in  society,  yet  on  account  of  its 
subjective  and  individual  character  it  continually  brings 
to  bear  an  individualizing  influence  upon  all  social  ac- 
tivities. Feeling  is,  therefore,  an  active  as  well  as  a 
passive  factor  in  the  social  life.  On  the  individual  side 
it  is  continually  modifying  activity,  both  in  conscious 
and  unconscious  -ways.  Feeling  Inust,  therefore,  be 
taken  into  account,  not  only  in  any  theoretical  inter- 
pretation of  the  social  life,  but  in  all  practical  measures 
for  modifying  or  controlling  social  activities.  While 
not  a  primary  force  in  society,  feeling  presents  itself 
as  an  important  secondary  force." 

f  Ellwood,  Charles  A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  p.  259. 


358  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

Intellect. — It  is  the  possession  of  mind  power  which  has 
been  the  determining  factor  in  man's  progress,  as  com- 
pared with  his  animal  neighbors.  We  find  that  the  mem- 
bers of  the  animal  world  are  equipped  with  instincts  and 
feelings,  although  in  a  manner  slightly  different  from  that 
of  man.  Animals  are  likewise  equipped  with  the  senses, 
keener  for  the  most  part  than  those  of  man,  and  many 
of  the  animals  excel  him  in  strength  and  speed.  But 
when  it  comes  to  intellect  he  stands  alone,  and  it  is  be- 
cause of  this  attribute  that  he  has  conquered  nature  and 
has  changed  his  environment  instead  of  allowing  himself 
to  be  changed  by  it.  Intellect  plays  the  deciding  role 
in  the  battle  of  life.  Professor  Ward  attempts  to  show 
how  intellect  developed  from  feeling;8  but  the  question 
of  origin  lies  outside  the  field  of  sociology,  for  man  pos- 
sessed intellect  long  before  sociology  takes  up  the  study 
of  him  and  his  institutions.  The  earliest  men  were 
equipped  with  intellectual  powers.  It  is  intellect  that 
guides  and  directs  the  feelings  and  instincts,  for  without 
it  they  are  not  capable  of  lifting  man  above  the  animal 
world.  The  key  to  man's  behavior  does  not  lie  in  his 
environment,  but  in  his  mental  make-up.  It  is  intellect 
that  puts  values  upon  activities  and  then  determines  ac- 
tions. What  this  decision  shall  be  depends  upon  what 
the  intellect  considers  to  be  of  the  greatest  value.  It 
carries  out  the  suggestions  of  the  instincts  and  satisfies 
the  cravings  of  the  feelings,  but  it  also  modifies  and  at 
times  even  vetoes  their  suggestions.  It  is  to  the  intellect 
that  both  instincts  and  feelings  go  for  commands.  But 
because  it  generally  listens  to  instinct  and  feeling,  the 
ideas  are  colored  and  influenced  by  them. 

Invention  and  discovery  are  made  possible  by  intellect, 
for  it  is  intellect  that  sees  the  need  and  the  opportunity 
and  brings  them  together.  Without  intellect,  material 
progress  would  have  been  impossible  and  man  would  have 
remained  an  animal  among  animals,  if  not  actually  ex- 
terminated. Civilization  has  simply  been  the  accumula- 

•Ward,  Lester  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  p.  119-124. 


Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect  359 

tion  of  ideas,  the  piling  up  of  inventions  and  discoveries, 
and  the  passing  on  to  future  generations  of  the  wisdom 
of  the  past.  An  idea  is  precious  and  new  ideas  are  rare 
things;  it  is  very  seldom  that  a  new  idea  or  invention 
is  added  to  civilization.  In  general  we  only  imitate  or 
repeat  the  past  experience,  slowly  improving  upon  it  by 
adding  a  bit  here  and  a  bit  there.  Most  of  the  things  that 
we  learn  are  really  discoveries  of  the  past.  Social  ideals 
are  also  the  results  of  intellect,  being  the  valuations 
placed  by  intellect  upon  acts  or  activities  of  mankind. 

We  have  taken  up  in  this  chapter,  as  a  starting  point 
in  our  analysis  of  society,  the  study  of  man's  social  equip- 
ment; this  will  enable  us  the  better  to  analyze  man's 
actions  and  the  workings  of  society.  It  will  also  give 
us  an  introduction  to  our  study  of  social  interests  and 
the  forces  and  institutions  that  control  society. 

READING  REFERENCES 

PARK,  R.  E.,  AND  BURGESS,  E.  W.,  Introduction  to  the  Science 

of  Sociology,  Chap  II. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Chaps. 

IX-XI. 

MCDOUGALL,  WILLIAM,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects, 

Chaps.  IX-XI. 

WALLAS,  GRAHAM,  The  Great  Society. 
WARD,  LESTER  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chaps.  VI-VII. 
HAYES,   EDWARD   C.,   Introduction   to    the   Study   of  Sociology, 

Chaps.  XVII  and  XVIII. 

BALDWIN,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Part  III. 
MCDOUGALL,  WILLIAM,  Mind  and  Body. 
COOLEY,  CHARLES  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order. 
COOLEY,  CHARLES  H.,  Social  Organization,  Chaps.  I  and  II. 
GROOS,  KARL,  Play  of  Animals. 
GROOS,  KARL,  Play  of  Man. 

VEBLEN,  THORSTEIN,  The  Instinct  of  Workmanship. 
PARMELEE,  MAURICE,  The  Science  of  Human  Behavior. 
HOCKING,  W.  E.,  Human  Nature  and  Its  Remaking. 
SHINN,  M.  W.,  The  Biography  of  a  Baby. 
EDMAN,  IRWIN,  Human  Traits  and  their  Social  Significance. 
WALLAS,  GRAHAM,  Human  Nature  in  Politics. 
TEAD,  0.,  Instincts  in  Industry. 
PARKER,  C.  H.,  The  Casual  Laborer  and  Other  Essays. 


360  Instincts,  Feeling,  and  Intellect 

KIRKPATRICK,  E.  A.,  The  Individual  in  the  Making. 

Publications  of  the  American  Sociological  Society,  Vol.  XVI, 
1921,  articles  by  Bernard,  L.  L.,  The  Significance  of  Environ- 
ment as  a  Social  Factor,  and  Faris,  E.,  Ethnological  Light  on 
Psychological  Problems. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
SOCIAL  INTERESTS 

By  social  interests  we  mean  the  stimuli  which  cause 
people  to  act.  We  do  certain  things;  we  get  up  in  the 
morning,  dress,  eat  breakfast,  and  rush  to  our  work  at 
the  office,  store,  or  factory ;  with  the  exception  of  a  lunch 
hour  we  work  all  day ;  we  come  home  at  night,  eat  dinner, 
and  spend  the  evening  at  home  in  reading,  playing  cards, 
or  just  resting,  or  perhaps  go  to  the  moving  picture  show, 
theater  or  opera  according  to  our  likes  and  means.  On 
Saturday  afternoon  we  may  go  to  a  ball  game,  and  on 
Sunday  drive  to  the  park  or  to  church  in  the  morning, 
and  sleep  or  go  to  the  ball  game  in  the  afternoon.  Why 
do  we  do  such  things?  Why  do  we  go  to  the  theater 
or  to  the  ball  game?  Why  do  we  eat  three  times  a  day, 
and  sleep  eight  hours  a  night?  Why  do  we  spend  so 
many  years  in  the  schoolroom,  often  to  the  detriment  of 
our  health?  Why  do  we  risk  life  and  limb  in  dangerous 
sports  like  polo  or  football?  Why  do  we  spend  our  lives 
working  to  buy  houses,  clothes,  food,  theater  tickets, 
flowers,  books,  magazines,  automobiles,  or  yachts,  when 
we  could  get  along  and  live  just  as  long  without  most 
of  these  things?  Why  do  we  spend  our  lifetimes  in  build- 
ing up  industries,  fortunes,  or  institutions,  which  we  our- 
selves seldom  have  time  to  enjoy?  Why  do  we  spend  our 
lives  writing  books  which  few  will  read,  or  working  ih 
the  laboratory  making  experiments  the  results  of  which 
few  care  about,  or  teaching  in  college  theories  which  will 
be  of  little  practical  value?  We  do  such  things  because 
we  want  to.  But  why  do  we  want  to?  Because  there 
are  interests  in  society  which  stimulate  us  to  do  them. 
It  is  with  such  stimuli  that  this  chapter  will  deal. 

361 


362  Social  Interests 

Many  of  these  stimuli  or  interests,  like  the  desire  for 
food,  grow  directly  out  of  our  instinctive  impulses,  but 
many  of  them,  such  as  the  desire  to  see  a  ball  game  or 
to  go  to  the  opera,  are  artificially  created  by  society, 
although  such  interests  may  be  indirect  outgrowths  of 
instinctive  impulses.  The  intellect  plays  its  part  in  shap- 
ing these  interests,  modifying  and  adapting  the  instinctive 
impulses.  Many  sociologists  do  not  distinguish  between 
social  forces  and  social  interests,  but  treat  them  all  to- 
gether, either  under  one  heading  or  the  other.  But  social 
forces  include  the  influences,  such  as  the  geographical 
environment,  which  help  or  hinder  man  in  his  pursuits; 
and  hereditary  traits,  which  limit  his  achievements  and 
largely  determine  his  social  environment,  healthful  or  un- 
healthful,  e.g.,  home  influences,  religious  control,  and  hous- 
ing conditions. 

Forces  may  be  either  external  or  internal,  objective  or 
subjective;  while  interests  are  more  subjective,  or  within 
one's  own  consciousness.  In  previous  chapters  we  have 
considered  the  influence  of  physical  forces  upon  popula- 
tion; now  we  take  up  the  interests  that  prompt  man  in 
his  social  activities.  In  our  next  chapter  we  shall  consider 
the  control  of  man  by  means  of  the  institutions  created 
by  him.  These  institutions  develop  directly  through  the 
interests,  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  interests  are 
the  product  of  the  instincts,  feelings,  and  intellect.  Al- 
though we  act  as  a  rule  without  stopping  to  reason  out 
why  we  act,  we  shall  attempt  to  analyze  and  study  our 
actions. 

Many  sociologists  have  tried  to  classify  and  arrange 
the  forces  or  interests  in  more  or  less  definite  tables,  with 
varying  degrees  of  success.1  While  all  these  classifications 

1  The  most  important  of  these  classifications  are  those  of  Ward, 
treated  as  social  forces,  found  in  Pure  Sociology,  p.  261 ;  Katzenhofer, 
treated  as  interests,  found  in  Sociologische  Erkenntniss,  pp.  54-66, 
and  Small's  General  Sociology,  p.  252;  Stuckenberg,  found  in 
Sociology,  Vol.  I,  p.  207;  Small,  treated  as  interests,  discussed  in 
General  Sociology,  pp.  443-467,  and  The  American  Journal  of 
Sociology,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  177-199;  Ross,  treated  as  social  forces,  in 
Foundations  of  Sociology,  p.  169;  Blackmar  and  Gillin,  treated  as 


Social  Interests  363 

are  extremely  suggestive  and  worthy  of  study,  no  one 
arrangement  is  wholly  satisfactory.  The  simplest  and 
possibly  the  most  suggestive,  although  at  the  same  time 
probably  the  most  severely  criticized,  is  that  of  Professor 
Small,  who  classifies  interests  under  the  headings  of 
health,  wealth,  sociability,  knowledge,  beauty,  and  right- 
ness.  But  such  a  classification  will  of  course  not  include 
all  interests  of  society.  In  this  work  interests  will  be 
arranged  according  to  groups,  not  because  the  arrange- 
ment given  shows  the  order  of  importance  or  is  the  only 
type  of  arrangement  possible,  but  simply  because  some 
classification  should  be  adopted.  No  attempt  will  be  made 
to  include  all  social  interests  or  to  show  the  various  rela- 
tionships of  these  interests.  The  aim  will  be  to  aid  the 
student  to  obtain  a  grasp  of  the  matter  and  to  be  as 
suggestive  as  possible  without  becoming  technical  or 
philosophical. 

Physical  Interests. — Under  instinct  we  discussed  the 
food  impulse  and  the  instincts  for  self-preservation.  Out 
of  these  impulses  have  grown  the  physical  interests.  The 
desire  for  food  and  drink  is  one  of  the  chief  interests 
of  man.  This  means  not  only  sufficient  food  and  water 
to  supply  the  body ;  the  interest  has  been  developed  until 
the  appetite  demands  foods,  which  are  well  seasoned,  care- 
fully prepared,  and  possessed  of  peculiar  tastes.  It  has 
even  taken  extravagant  forms,  demanding  unusual  and 
expensive  dishes,  such  as  the  extreme  forms  of  the  days 
of  the  old  Roman  banquets,  when  peacocks'  brains  and 
nightingales'  tongues  were  in  demand,  and  when  the 

forces,  in  Outlines  of  Sociology,  pp.  287-288.  Blackmar  and  Gillin 
also  give  in  Part  III,  Chap.  II,  of  this  same  book  other  classifi- 
cations. They  are  omitted  from  this  volume  because  of  the  lack 
of  space  and  because  the  average  student  finds  many  classifications 
more  confusing  than  instructive.  So  in  this  text  no  use  will  be 
made  of  these  schemes  and  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  classify  the 
social  forces  for  the  simple  reason  that  no  really  satisfactory  classifi- 
cation can  be  made.  The  interests  are  too  complex  and  too  intricately 
interwoven  to  allow  separation  and  arbitrary  arrangement.  Park 
and  Burgess  treat  both  interests  and  forces  under  Social  Forces  in 
Chapter  VII  of  An  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Sociology  and  at 
the  end  of  this  chapter  give  a  splendid  bibliography. 


364  Social  Interests 

depths  of  the  sea  and  the  corners  of  the  earth  were 
searched  for  rare  and  peculiar  foods.  This  desire  has 
also  taken  abnormal  turns,  such  as  the  cravings  for  in- 
toxicants and  drugs,  and  has  gone  to  such  an  extreme  that 
the  average  American  family  formerly  spent  annually 
nearly  $100.00  on  liquor  alone.  The  demand  for  drink 
has  passed  from  that  for  water  to  that  for  drinks  which 
have  pleasing  tastes,  such  as  tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  lemon- 
ade, limeade,  and  the  various  concoctions  furnished  by 
the  soda  fountain  and  the  saloon. 

The  demand  for  clothing  arises  in  large  part  because 
of  our  physical  needs  or  interests,  although  clothing  was 
originally  adopted  for  the  sake  of  ornament  and  is  still 
to  a  great  extent  worn  for  that  purpose.  But  in  modern 
society  clothing  is  absolutely  essential,  especially  in  our 
northern  climates.  The  desire  for  shelter  is  much  the 
same,  although  in  a  modern  house  we  demand  far  more 
than  mere  healthful  shelter,  requiring  beauty,  congenial 
location,  and  convenience. 

Aversion  to  pain,  love  of  warmth,  and  desire  for  bodily 
ease,  as  well  as  the  demand  for  safety  from  physical  in- 
jury, are  other  examples  of  physical  interests.  Craving 
for  exercise  is  to  a  large  extent  a  direct  result  of  the 
health  interest.  Desire  for  sensuous  pleasure  also  is  in- 
cluded under  physical  interests.  In  short,  this  group  com- 
prises all  interests  leading  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  bodily 
demand. 

Economic  Interests. — While  of  minor  importance  under 
primitive  conditions,  the  economic  interests  are  perhaps 
to-day  the  strongest  prompting  man  to  activity.  Under 
this  heading  comes  any  interest  leading  to  the  production 
or  accumulation  of  wealth.  It  is  closely  connected  with, 
and  at  times  inseparable  from  physical  interests,  for 
wealth  is  produced  in  order  to  satisfy  human  demands, 
many  of  which  are  physical.  Man  works  for  a  wage  be- 
cause that  wage  will  procure  him  what  he  wants.  He 
accumulates  property  so  as  not  to  be  in  want  in  the  future. 
Yet  those  who  build  up  and  organize  industry  are  seldom 
compelled  to  do  it  merely  in  order  to  supply  their  physical 


Social  Interests  365 

needs.  Industry  is  founded  upon  other  pillars  than 
physical  need ;  rivalry,  love  of  ostentation,  instinct  of  work- 
manship, etc.  Sociology  does  not  recognize  the  concep- 
tion of  the  "economic  man"  of  the  classical  economists. 
Sociology  recognizes  that  man  strives  for  wealth  in  order 
to  gain  control,  achieve  prestige,  win  a  wife,  buy  a  title, 
or  gain  the  applause  of  his  fellows;  or  for  the  mere  sake 
of  the  game  as  well  as  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  physical 
needs. 

Wealth  is,  in  brief,  the  means  of  satisfying  other  in- 
terests. Yet  it  does  not  destroy  the  validity  of  the  concept 
of  economic  interests  that  it  cannot  be  separated  from 
the  other  interests.  Man  labors  in  order  to  produce,  ex- 
change, distribute,  and  consume  wealth.  This  wealth  may 
bring  him  the  power  of  satisfying  desires  for  influence  in 
society,  power  over  rivals,  books,  art  treasures,  travel, 
music,  or  sensual  pleasure.  He  may  not  take  advantage 
of  these  things,  but  wealth  to  him  is  the  representation 
of  them.  For  the  sake  of  wealth  men  toil  and  deny  them- 
selves the  satisfaction  of  other  interests.  They  organize 
their  lives  for  this  purpose  and  for  meeting  the  demands 
of  the  wealth-getting  process.  They  may  do  this  for  their 
own  wealth  interest,  or  may  by  the  organization  of  society 
be  compelled  to  do  it  for  the  benefit  of  someone  else.  With 
primitive  man  this  interest  was  not  so  strong,  the  other 
more  direct  interests,  particularly  the  physical,  taking 
precedence  over  it;  but  as  the  satisfaction  of  wants  be- 
comes more  indirect,  and  as  consumption  of  goods  is  post- 
poned through  the  increase  in  the  number  of  steps  in  the 
production  and  distribution  of  wealth,  the  wealth  interest 
becomes  stronger,  until  under  our  present  capitalistic  or- 
ganization it  is  probably  the  strongest  interest  in  society. 

Sociability  Interests. — The  sociability  instinct  of  man 
has  persisted  throughout  history  and  has  permeated  every 
branch  of  human  society.  Man  cannot  live  a  Eobinson 
Crusoe  existence ;  he  has  to  have  companionship.  In  order 
to  obtain  it  he  will  deny  himself  the  satisfaction  of  other 
interests,  accepting  smaller  pay,  enduring  privation,  and 
even  suffering  hardship.  Solitary  confinement  is  one  of 


366  Social  Interests 

the  worst  punishments,  and  even  temporary  absence  from 
friends  and  relatives  is  considered  a  hardship. 

One  craves  not  merely  companionship,  but  also  con- 
genial companionship,  the  association  of  kindred  spirits. 
While  there  are  many  exceptions,  it  is  the  general  ten- 
dency  for  each  member  of  society  to  seek  out  and  mingle 
with  others  of  like  character,  temperament,  ability,  and 
training.  This  is  not  always  possible,  but  such  is  the 
desire  and  effort  of  each  person.  We  want  to  associate 
with  others  of  our  kind.  We  see  this  principle  illustrated 
by  the  exclusiveness  of  the  members  of  so-called  society 
in  their  efforts  to  exclude  those  whom  they  consider  unfit 
to  be  of  their  set.  We  find  the  same  sentiment  in  the 
college  fraternity,  the  club,  the  fraternal  order,  and  even 
— sad  to  say — in  some  of  the  churches.  If  we  watch  any 
large  gathering  where  there  is  freedom  of  movement,  we 
shall  quickly  notice  the  drifting  together  of  those  having 
like  interests  and  desires — unconscious  perhaps,  but  in- 
evitable. This  interest  is  so  strong  in  society  that  it  under- 
lies every  phase  of  activity — social,  political,  and  re- 
ligious. 

This  interest  has  been  a  strong  factor  in  history, 
kindred  spirits  establishing  colonies,  after  the  manner  of 
Plymouth,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland,  and  founding 
model  communities,  such  as  Brook  Farm,  Arcadia,  the 
Oneida  Community,  and  the  various  Shaker  communities. 
We  find  groups  of  kindred  spirits  engaging  in  piratical 
expeditions,  and  in  warlike  campaigns  of  conquest  or 
discovery,  starting  revolutions,  establishing  governments, 
founding  religions,  going  in  fact  into  all  the  varied  ac- 
tivities of  life.  If  we  took  away  from  society  this  craving 
for  companionship,  life  would  be  devoid  of  much  of  its 
charm.  Man  desires  the  sympathy  of  his  fellows ;  he  wishes 
to  satisfy  his  pride  and  vanity.  To  gratify  his  love  of 
power  and  glory  he  must  have  companions  to  witness  his 
achievements.  Though  it  is  not  the  only  factor  or  even 
the  chief  interest  in  society,  the  sociability  interest  is  one 
of  the  most  important  and  must  be  carefully  considered 
in  a  study  of  any  social  or  group  enterprise, 


Social  Interests  367 

Recreational  Interests. — The  recreational  interests  are 
closely  connected  with  the  social.  The  play  impulse  craves 
satisfaction.  The  demand  for  muscular  activity,  for  rest 
from  labor,  for  expression  of  emotions — all  find  their 
outlet  in  the  recreational  interests.  Not  only  the  child  but 
even  the  adult  craves  recreation.  In  America  recreation 
generally  takes  the  form  of  team  play,  for  which  several 
participants  are  necessary  and  the  number  of  onlookers 
is  limited  only  by  the  seating  capacity.  Our  great  football 
games  draw  thousands;  in  fact,  stadiums  and  amphi- 
theaters cannot  be  constructed  large  enough  to  satisfy 
the  demand.  At  important  games  our  baseball  parks  are 
crowded,  and  people  have  been  known  to  stand  in  line 
all  night  to  insure  themselves  good  seats.  Theaters  are 
often  sold  out  for  weeks  in  advance.  The  moving  picture 
business  has  sprung  up  with  wonderful  rapidity,  simply 
in  response  to  the  demand  for  cheap  amusement. 

Games  provide  fellowship  as  well  as  furnish  rest  and 
relaxation.  Ideas  of  recreation  differ  among  races;  the 
English  and  Americans  as  a  rule  take  their  recreation 
in  active  sports;  the  Oriental  takes  his  in  repose  and 
meditation.  It  is  hard  to  draw  the  line  between  recrea- 
tional interests  and  artistic  interests,  dancing,  singing, 
and  many  games  being  on  the  borderland  between  them. 
Kecreation  is  also  vitally  connected  with  other  interests, 
for  the  economic  motive  functions  in  many  of  our  sports 
and  actually  controls  some,  such  as  organized  baseball 
and  the  professional  sports  in  general.  To  many,  en- 
gaging in  sports  is  an  occupation;  among  these  are  the 
professional  boxer,  wrestler,  and  baseball  player.  Teach- 
ing games  is  a  profession,  in  fact  a  very  well-paid  pro- 
fession. 

Many  people  mingle  pleasure  with  work,  some  taking 
keen  pleasure  in  their  work.  The  negro,  for  example,  is 
never  a  good  workman  until  he  gets  himself  into  the  right 
emotional  attitude.  Successful  employers  of  negro  labor 
are  often  careful  to  employ  some  workers  who  are  good 
singers.  In  this  way  they  manage  to  have  the  work  done 
much  more  rapidly.  If  one  can  fall  in  love  with  his  work 


368  Social  Interests 

and  treat  it  as  a  game,  he  will  not  only  enjoy  it  more, 
but  will  as  a  rule  be  far  more  successful  than  if  he  looks 
upon  it  as  a  task  which  must  be  performed.  If  he  can 
combine  work  with  the  proper  amount  of  recreation,  he 
can  accomplish  work  of  a  much  higher  order  than  if  he 
took  no  recreation  whatever.  While  often  slighted,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  allowed  too  great  liberty,  on  the  other, 
the  play  interest  is  a  valid  one,  and  when  held  under 
the  proper  control  is  one  of  man's  greatest  satisfactions. 
Sports,  especially  those  where  courage  and  daring  are 
required,  teach  courage  and  a  spirit  of  fair  play.  They 
also  quicken  the  eye  and  the  memory,  train  the  muscles 
to  accuracy  and  quickness  of  movement,  and  fit  man  for 
usefulness  in  society,  in  addition  to  satisfying  the  craving 
for  amusement.  This  interest  is  perfectly  normal  and 
worthy  and  should  be  encouraged  and  regulated. 

Religious  Interests. — In  our  earlier  chapter  on  Eeligion 
and  Ethics  we  studied  the  development  of  religion,  tracing 
the  various  steps  in  its  evolution.  In  our  next  chapter  we 
shall  again  consider  religion,  this  time  as  an  element  of 
social  control.  All  we  shall  do  here,  therefore,  will  be 
to  treat  it  as  a  social  interest.  Our  religious  interests 
enter  into  every  phase  of  our  life,  supplying  motives  of 
action  or  restraint,  generally  the  latter.  Everybody  has 
some  sort  of  religious  nature  and  is  affected  by  it,  even 
though  he  may  try  to  subdue  or  kill  it.  While  this  in- 
terest is  to  a  certain  extent  innate,  it  is  largely  the  result 
of  cultivation.  As  the  conception  of  religion  becomes 
loftier  this  interest  changes  in  a  corresponding  manner. 

Closely  connected  and  interwoven  with  the  religious  in- 
terests are  the  ethical  and  altruistic  interests.  They  supply 
motives  which  are  less  sordid  than  physical  and  eco- 
nomic ones.  While  man  is  probably  selfish  by  nature,  he 
has  some  ideas  of  Tightness  and  justice  and  wants  to 
see  fair  play.  He  may  not  be  so  anxious  to  give  the  other 
fellow  fair  play  as  he  is  to  have  the  other  fellow  give 
it  to  him,  and  he  is  much  more  eager  to  compel  others 
to  observe  it  than  he  is  for  them  to  compel  him  to 
practice  it.  But  nevertheless  there  is  the  altruistic  ten- 


Social  Interests  369 

dency,  which  has  been  steadily  growing  as  civilization  has 
advanced.  The  world  is  gradually  throwing  off  the 
shackles  of  despotism:  freeing  the  slave,  elevating  the 
serf,  destroying  the  absolutism  of  rulers  or  limiting  their 
powers,  extending  the  right  of  self-government  to  more 
and  more  people,  allowing  women  greater  freedom,  chang- 
ing the  form  of  law  from  the  arbitrary  command  of  one 
or  a  few  to  the  mature  opinion  of  many,  and  substituting 
milder  and  more  just  forms  of  punishment  of  crime  for 
the  harsh  and  prejudiced  decisions  of  those  in  power. 

Because  of  the  rise  of  ethical  and  altruistic  sentiments 
religion  has  grown  purer  and  loftier.  The  altruistic  senti- 
ment is  not  an  innate  characteristic  but  has  been  devel- 
oped from  sympathy.  There  is  a  growing  sentiment  in 
favor  of  caring  for  others.  Formerly  we  looked  with 
indifference  at  the  suffering  of  others,  provided  they  were 
not  related  to  us  or  connected  with  us  by  ties  of  friend- 
ship, but  now  we  draw  no  lines.  The  Great  War  presented 
many  illustrations  of  this  fact.  The  neutral  nations  not 
only  sent  vast  sums  to  care  for  the  orphaned,  crippled, 
and  needy  of  the  warring  nations,  but  furnished  hospitals, 
nurses,  and  doctors,  often  at  great  sacrifices,  in  order  to 
relieve  the  suffering  of  those  in  distress.  This  was  later 
extended  to  relieve  suffering  even  in  the  enemy's  country. 
If  a  famine  is  caused  in  India  by  the  failure  of  a  crop, 
or  an  earthquake  or  volcanic  eruption  destroys  the  means 
of  living  in  some  far-off  island,  food  pours  in  from  all 
sections  of  the  earth.  Distress  in  China  is  relieved,  even 
if  those  administering  help  are  called  "foreign  devils" 
and  are  in  peril  of  their  very  lives.  The  Americans  have 
repeatedly  tried  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  Mexican 
people  during  the  past  decade,  although  at  times  bands 
of  Mexicans  were  destroying  property  belonging  to 
Americans,  and  even  killing  the  Americans  who  fell  into 
their  power.  The  American  government  endured  insult 
after  insult  and  yet  did  its  best  to  overcome  the  chaos 
in  Mexico  and  to  give  the  people  a  stable  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

This  altruistic  sentiment  has  affected  the  policies  of 


370  Social  Interests 

other  governments  as  well,  being  especially  reflected  in 
the  policy  of  England  toward  her  dependants,  South 
Africa  furnishing  the  best  example.  After  conquering 
that  country,  the  English  gave  the  Boers  better  govern- 
ment 'and  more  real  independence  and  freedom  than  they, 
had  enjoyed  before,  allowing  even  the  election  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Boer  army  to  the  presidency  of 
the  new  republic,  which  embraced  all  of  English  South 
Africa.  The  Boers,  on  their  part,  showed  their  ability 
to  appreciate  such  treatment  and  remained  loyal  to  Eng- 
land in  her  time  of  distress  during  the  World  War,  thus 
proving  the  practical  value  of  such  a  policy. 

Formerly  we  were  indifferent  to  the  misery  of  the  lower 
classes,  but  now  we  try  not  only  to  relieve  suffering  but 
also  to  prevent  it.  We  attempt,  not  merely  to  keep  free 
from  contamination  ourselves,  but  to  grapple  with  the 
problem  and  relieve  the  distress  of  others.  Instead  of 
avoiding  diseases  we  try  to  find  the  cures  for  them; 
scientists  even  risk  and  oftentimes  lose  their  lives  in  order 
to  find  the  cures  for  such  scourges  as  yellow  fever,  leprosy, 
the  bubonic  plague,  spotted  fever,  and  tetanus.  Reformers 
throw  their  whole  souls  into  the  work  of  wiping  out  such 
evils  as  the  liquor  traffic,  opium  habit,  graft  in  politics, 
and  child  labor,  although  personally  they  are  not  injured 
by  such  evils.  People  with  comfortable  incomes  fight  for 
minimum  wage  legislation;  those  who  work  short  hours, 
for  an  eight-hour  day;  those  who  have  not  gone  to  jail, 
for  the  reform  of  our  prison  systems;  those  who  live  in 
comfortable  homes,  for  building  codes  and  housing  re- 
forms ;  those  who  do  not  work  in  factories,  for  protection 
against  dangerous  machinery  and  unsanitary  conditions. 
Missionaries  go  to  foreign  fields  to  labor  for  small  salaries, 
when  they  could  command  several  times  as  much  at  home. 
Others  give  their  lives  to  the  elevation  of  the  lower  classes 
and  the  relief  of  distress  at  home.  All  these  illustrations 
go  to  show  the  increase  of  altruistic  motives  and  the  im- 
portance of  these  interests  in  society.  We  may  expect 
this  group  of  interests  to  become  stronger  and  stronger 
as  civilization  advances. 


Social  Interests  371 

Political  Interests. — Like  the  economic,  the  political  in- 
terests are  often  merely  the  outgrowth  of  other  interests. 
The  rule  once  was  that  of  the  strong  arm ;  early  political 
organization  was  a  means  of  enforcing  the  authority  of 
a  few.  Later  it  became  the  means  of  giving  justice  to 
many.  But  even  to-day  government  is  frequently  per- 
verted into  a  means  of  satisfying  the  selfish  desires  of 
certain  favored  individuals.  It  is  asserted  by  some  that 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  written  by 
the  capitalist  class,  who  consciously  or  unconsciously 
framed  it  so  as  to  protect  their  interests.  One  of  the 
chief  purposes  of  government  is  to  protect  the  citizens 
of  the  state,  and  to  this  extent  it  is  an  outgrowth  of 
the  instincts  for  protection  and  self-defense.  It  is  the 
means  of  enforcing  and  administering  justice,  of  preserv- 
ing and  protecting  the  economic  interests.  The  state  pro- 
tects property  and  regulates  its  exchange  and  administra- 
tion, and  often  political  interests  have  as  their  dominant 
motive  the  furthering  of  economic  interests.  It  is  the 
means  of  protecting  the  individual  against  violence  and 
unhealthful  conditions,  and  thus  it  accomplishes  the 
furthering  of  the  physical  interests.  It  is  a  means  of  en- 
larging the  altruistic  or  humanitarian  interests  through 
care  of  the  poor,  sick,  defective,  and  dependent  classes. 
Yet  like  the  economic,  the  political  interests  have  c.  dis- 
tinct field  of  their  own,  politics  being  separate  from  family 
life,  religious  activities,  commerce,  and  industry.  Politics 
is  a  profession.  It  is  also  an  avocation  for  many  who  do 
not  follow  it  as  a  means  of  livelihood.  In  every  well- 
organized  state  where  there  is  universal  or  partial  suf- 
frage, there  are  developed  political  parties,  each  standing 
for  certain  more  or  less  definite  purposes,  such  as  policies 
of  international  trade,  regulation  of  industries,  or  institu- 
tions. These  parties  have  their  rise,  development,  and 
decline,  and  are  supplanted  by  others.  In  a  country  like 
the  United  States,  party  lines  are  so  well  drawn  and 
parties  are  so  well  organized  that  every  person  is  sup- 
posed to  have,  and  generally  does  have,  some  party  affilia- 
tion; and  in  many  places  this  affiliation  is  so  hard  and 


372  Social  Interests 

fast  that  he  will  support  his  party  regardless  of  right 
or  wrong,  or  of  the  merit  of  the  issues  involved. 

Such  conditions  are  regrettable,  and  in  fact  they  are 
slowly  breaking  up,  political  organization  being  gradually 
looked  upon  as  a  means  to  an  end,  rather  than  as  an 
end  in  itself.  Yet  the  political  interest,  especially  in  a 
country  which  is  governed  more  or  less  by  the  popular 
vote,  is  one  which  enters  into  the  daily  life  of  almost 
every  citizen  and  therefore  cannot  be  neglected. 

Aesthetic  or  Artistic  Interests. — Almost  as  far  back  as 
we  can  trace  the  history  of  man,  we  find  the  aesthetic 
or  artistic  interests  at  work  in  some  form  or  other,  first 
in  personal  adornment  or  decoration  and  later  in  the 
decorations  of  tools,  weapons,  huts,  and  articles  of  use. 
Professor  Ward  has  traced  the  development  of  these  in- 
terests from  animal  decoration,  such  as  the  fine  plumage 
of  birds  and  the  natural  decoration  of  other  animals,  as 
illustrated  by  the  mane  of  the  lion,  and  the  stripes  of 
the  tiger.  Man  adopted  clothing  for  this  purpose;  and 
he  has  incorporated  the  desire  for  decoration  into  every 
phase  of  his  varied  life.  It  is  closely  akin  to  the  recrea- 
tional interests,  for  both  enter  into  many  activities,  like 
the  dance  or  the  drama.  It  is  also  interwoven  with  reli- 
gion, which  has  employed  it  as  an  aid  to  religious  develop- 
ment, as  in  beautiful  temples,  cathedrals,  vestments,  and 
ceremonies  of  worship.  Religion  has  always  made  use 
of  music  (even  at  times  of  dancing),  as  well  as  of  architec- 
ture, painting,  and  sculpture. 

On  the  other  hand,  religion  has  given  art  its  greatest 
inspirations ;  the  most  lofty  poems  and  the  best  paintings 
and  pieces  of  sculpture  are  the  results  of  religious  inspira- 
tions. The  finest  statues  that  the  world  has  known  have 
been  the  endeavors  of  the  Greeks  to  represent  their 
divinities,  and  the  finest  paintings  have  resulted  from  the 
efforts  of  artists  to  depict  religious  scenes,  such  as  the 
Madonnas,  the  Last  Supper,  and  Christ  Before  Pilate; 
and  the  finest  pieces  of  architecture  have  been  cathedrals 
and  temples,  such  as  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  the  Taj 
Mahal,  and  the  cathedrals  of  Europe. 


Social  Interests  373 

At  times  art  and  religion  have  collaborated;  at  other 
times  religion  has  restrained  and  controlled  art.  With  the 
progress  of  society  artistic  interests  have  become  dif- 
ferentiated into  the  interests  represented  by  music,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture.  These  aesthetic  interests 
take  various  forms  among  different  races;  things  that 
appear  beautiful  to  one  race  may  not  appeal  to  the  taste 
of  another.  Ideas  of  physical  beauty  are  not  the  same 
among  different  peoples ;  the  Hottentots,  for  example,  con- 
sider corpulence  a  sign  of  beauty  and  select  for  the  belles 
the  plumpest  girls  in  the  tribe ;  with  other  peoples  supple- 
ness and  gracefulness  of  form  are  the  qualities  desired.  To 
a  Kaffir  child  a  thing  is  beautiful  if  it  is  good  to  eat. 
In  clothing  most  of  us  desire  beauty,  even  before  warmth, 
although  our  ideas  of  beauty  are  sometimes  perplexing 
and  change  from  year  to  year.  We  even  desire  our  food 
to  be  served  in  a  manner  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Furniture 
must  be  beautiful  as  well  as  useful. 

As  leisure  increases  and  as  man  has  more  opportunities 
to  gratify  his  desires,  the  aesthetic  interests  in  society 
become  more  pronounced;  therefore  we  may  anticipate  a 
constant  increase  in  the  importance  of  these  interests. 

Intellectual  Interests.  —  Another  group  of  interests, 
which  have  been  artificially  developed  by  society,  are 
those  represented  by  knowledge,  culture,  and  refinement. 
The  knowledge  interest  is  a  direct  result  of  the  activity 
of  the  intellect.  When  man  began  life,  he  was  confronted 
with  facts  of  nature  which  he  did  not  understand  and 
which  he  could  not  interpret.  As  a  result  he  feared 
nature ;  but  as  his  fears  were  allayed  he  began  to  ponder 
and  to  think  upon  the  why  and  wherefore  of  things;  he 
began  to  investigate  and  to  discover  causes.  He  found 
delight  in  this  process  such  as  the  child  feels  upon  finding 
out  things;  pleasure  resulted  from  the  satisfying  of  the 
feeling  of  curiosity.  This  interest  entered  into  religion 
and  magic  and  into  the  economic  life.  As  soon  as  man 
discovered  anything  he  would  pass  it  on  to  others. 

At  first  this  was  a  slow,  difficult,  and  uncertain  process, 
but  with  the  invention  of  an  alphabet  and  later  of  print- 


374  Social  Interests 

ing  it  was  made  easier.  While  utility  was  the  incentive 
to  find  out  things,  the  very  finding  itself  was  pleasant 
and  gave  a  satisfaction  all  its  own.  In  fact,  the  solving 
of  puzzles  and  problems  has  always  been  a  favorite  amuse- 
ment, and  many  of  our  games,  like  chess,  checkers,  and 
solitaire,  have  this  as  their  chief  element.  We  like  to  do 
things  simply  to  be  able  to  do  them.  The  spirit  of  emula- 
tion comes  in  too ;  we  are  ashamed  not  to  know  something 
which  someone  else  knows.  Many  people  read  books 
simply  to  be  able  to  say  that  they  have  read  them,  or 
for  fear  of  being  considered  ignorant  if  they  have  not 
done  so.  Much  of  our  education  brings  us  little  practical 
utility.  We  often  study  merely  to  learn  things,  knowing 
that  we  may  make  no  practical  use  of  our  knowledge. 
We  often  learn  arts  like  playing  the  piano  or  violin,  or 
Dinging,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  being  able  to  perform, 
because  we  consider  it  a  mark  of  refinement  to  know 
these  arts. 

It  is  knowledge  that  has  given  man  his  victory  over 
nature,  for  without  this  product  of  intellect  man  would 
still  be  little  better  than  the  animals.  Knowledge  is  neces- 
sary for  the  battle  with  life.  In  our  present  society  some 
knowledge  is  absolutely  essential  for  life  itself.  Knowl- 
edge is  a  means  of  maintaining  one's  standard  of  life 
and  position  in  society.  We  have  organized  this  interest 
in  our  educational  institutions,  with  their  vast  ramifica- 
tions and  intimate  connection  with  the  life  of  every  person. 
Yet  the  intellectual  interests  do  not  end  here;  instead 
they  only  begin,  for  in  our  schools  we  merely  start  the 
individual  on  the  road  to  knowledge.  The  intellectual 
interests  are  maintained  throughout  the  entire  life.  There 
is  no  limit  to  the  increase  of  this  interest,  and  it  is  in 
all  probability  the  one  which  has  had  the  largest  growth 
in  the  life  of  society,  and  the  one  which  bids  fair  to 
show  the  greatest  development  in  the  future. 

These  are  by  no  means  all  of  the  different  groups  of 
interests  which  might  be  mentioned,  nor  all  of  the 
branches  of  the  interests  considered.  Man  is,  in  fact, 
made  up  of  a  bundle  of  interests,  each  of  which  is  pressing 


Social  Interests  375 

its  claims  for  attention.  By  interests  we  do  not  mean 
the  great  compelling  forces  of  society,  but  the  motives 
or  incentives  that  prompt  man  to  do  things.  These  in- 
terests are  fundamental  to  our  social  institutions.  It  is 
the  religious  interest  which  is  crystallized  into  religious 
organizations;  the  political  interests  underlie  law  and 
government;  the  economic  interest  is  the  foundation  of 
industry  and  commerce ;  our  intellectual  interests  produce 
educational  institutions.  Other  interests  are  the  incen- 
tives to  the  upbuilding  of  other  institutions.  In  the  next 
chapter  we  shall  see  how  these  institutions  in  turn  control 
the  life  of  man. 

Group  Interests. — Society  is  a  collection  of  groups. 
Each  person  in  society  is  a  member  of  several  groups.  He 
is  a  member  of  some  family,  which  is  a  group  and  the 
one  which  is  generally  regarded  as  the  fundamental  social 
group.  He  is  at  the  same  time  a  member  of  many  other 
groups,  possibly  of  a  church  or  Sunday  school,  a  baseball 
team,  a  business  firm,  a  political  party,  a  lodge,  a  club, 
a  board  of  directors,  a  chautauqua  association,  etc.  He 
may  be  not  only  a  member  of  more  or  less  permanent 
groups  such  as  have  been  mentioned,  but  he  is  continually 
becoming  and  ceasing  to  be  a  member  of  temporary  groups 
— he  is  a  unit  of  a  crowd  on  the  street  corner,  a  passenger 
on  the  street  car  or  elevator,  a  member  of  a  theater 
audience,  or  a  part  of  a  crowd  at  the  ball  game  or  political 
meeting,  though  in  the  latter  case  he  may  not  be  a  member 
of  the  party  conducting  the  meeting.  He  may  belong  to 
several  groups  at  the  same  time.  Each  time  he  is  in- 
fluenced to  some  extent  by  the  group  of  which  he  is  a 
member,  even  if  it  is  merely  the  group  in  the  express 
elevator.  At  the  same  time  he  exercises  his  influence  upon 
the  other  members  of  the  group,  though  he  may  never 
speak  to  them.  Groups  may  be  consciously  and  purposely 
organized,  or  they  be  unconsciously  and  accidentally 
formed.  Each  group  stands  for  a  definite  object,  es- 
pecially the  conscious  and  purposeful  groups  like  the 
political  party  or  the  church;  but  even  the  crowd  on  the 
street  car  has  a  purpose  in  common — they  are  desirous 


376  Social  Interests 

of  riding  on  the  same  car  at  the  same  time.  In  brief, 
these  groups  are  the  results  of  social  interests,  whether 
such  interests  be  lasting  or  fleeting;  each  interest  causes 
for  the  time  being  the  formation  of  a  group. 

The  group  is  always  stronger  than  the  individual,  for 
he,  though  helping  to  shape  the  group,  is  controlled  by 
it.  If  he  is  a  member  of  a  church,  he  is  obliged  to  abide  by 
the  regulations  of  that  body,  although  he  may  have  had 
no  voice  in  the  making  of  those  regulations.  The  group 
is  continually  whipping  the  individual  into  line.  The  code 
of  conduct  demanded  by  the  group  may  or  may  not  be 
superior  to  that  of  the  individual.  In  the  group  the 
individual  may  try  to  hide  his  meaner  self  and  show  only 
his  better  nature,  and  yet  in  other  crowds  the  opposite 
may  be  true,  as  illustrated  by  a  crowd  lynching  a  negro 
for  insulting  a  white  man.  The  crowd  may  be  controlled 
by  the  better  spirits  or  by  the  baser  ones,  depending  upon 
conditions.  Some  individuals  always  rise  above  the  group, 
but  on  the  other  hand  there  are  individuals  who  are 
always  below  the  group  standard.  But  the  group  is  con- 
tinually trying  to  compel  its  members  to  be  alike. 

Group  standards  are  made  for  the  average  person,  and 
there  are  always  those  who  chafe  under  them.  Seniors 
in  college  occasionally  object  to  requirements  and  restric- 
tions which  to  the  Freshman  seem  very  lenient,  because 
these  rules  are  not  made  for  Seniors  but  for  the  average 
college  student,  who  is  theoretically  half  way  between  the 
Sophomore  and  Junior  years.  The  Senior  has  grown  tired 
of  them,  has  possibly  outgrown  them.  It  is  much  the 
same  with  nearly  all  groups.  If  a  person  is  too  big  for 
his  group  (a  situation  which  often  arises),  he  should  gel 
out  of  it,  because  he  will  either  neglect  his  duties,  because 
he  does  not  value  his  position,  or  arouse  the  jealousy  or 
envy  of  his  fellows,  or  possibly  both.  As  a  result,  it  is 
often  much  more  difficult  for  a  person  to  fill  a  position 
which  is  too  small  for  him  than  one  which  is  too  big,  for 
in  the  latter  case  his  associates  do  not  envy  or  fear  him, 
so  are  willing  to  help  him  out  of  his  difficulties. 

Social  progress  consists  in  raising  standards — which 


Social  Interests  377 

means  the  elevation  of  group  standards — and  this  must 
be  the  result  of  individual  action  within  the  group.  The 
reformer  as  a  rule  is  hated  and  ridiculed,  sometimes  even 
persecuted  and  killed.  The  problem  of  life  often  consists 
in  finding  out  how  far  to  be  a  reformer  and  when  to  be 
merely  a  conformer.  The  innovator  must  always  carry 
the  burden  of  proof.  Yet  the  success  of  the  group  depends 
not  upon  the  subjection  of  the  individual,  but  in  its  service 
to  the  individual  members  of  the  group.  If  it  retards 
their  interests,  it  will  be  only  a  question  of  time  until  ft 
is  retired.  Group  struggles  are  often  merely  struggles 
between  individuals  within  the  group.  Sometimes  it  is  best 
for  society  for  the  individual  to  remain  in  a  certain  group 
— i.e.,  the  penitentiary,  reformatory,  insane  asylum,  feeble- 
minded school,  or  hospital.  While  the  individual  might 
live  a  freer  life  outside  the  group,  it  is  often  best  to 
remain  in  it — for  instance,  in  the  family.  An  individual 
may  function  well  in  one  group  and  be  a  failure  in  an- 
other. He  may  be  a  model  husband  and  father,  yet  be 
a  pickpocket  or  gambler  by  occupation;  he  may  be  a 
successful  minister  and  yet  neglect  his  family;  he  may; 
be  a  magnificent  athlete  and  yet  be  a  poor  student;  he 
may  be  a  splendid  salesman  and  yet  not  pay  his  debts. 

As  a  rule  groups — that  is,  permanent  groups — in  society 
follow  occupational  lines.  Followers  of  each  occupation  form 
a  group  by  themselves;  bricklayers  belong  to  their  union, 
work  for  its  advancement,  and  associate  with  other  brick- 
layers and  with  workers  in  allied  trades;  factory  hands 
join  together  to  form  their  own  groups ;  so  do  employers 
in  the  different  fields  of  industry;  professional  people 
associate  according  to  professions;  day  laborers  herd  to- 
gether in  much  the  same  way.  Social  grouping  is  not 
altogether  on  the  basis  of  occupation,  but  may  function 
according  to  recreation,  social  endeavors,  religion,  and 
politics.  There  are  churches  which  cater  to  the  rich  and 
others  which  are  attended  only  by  the  poor.  Stores  in 
the  same  way  appeal  to  certain  groups,  and  each  political 
party  tries  to  recruit  its  followers  according  to  occupa- 
tional or  racial  lines,  appealing  to  these  interests  to  hold 


378  Social  Interests 

them  together.  Farmers  associate  with  farmers  not 
in  economic  ways,  but  for  religious,  social,  educational, 
and  welfare  interests.  While  there  are  many  exceptions 
to  this  rule,  it  is  the  tendency,  where  conditions  permit, 
for  those  of  the  same  or  kindred  occupations  to  associate 
and  form  groups  based  on  interests  even  outside  of  their 
real  occupational  interests,  simply  because  they  have  cer- 
tain things  in  common,  and  because  of  this  feel  more  at 
home  with  those  of  the  same  or  allied  occupations  than 
with  members  of  other  occupations. 

We  might  multiply  illustrations  of  group  action ;  in  fact 
we  might  work  out  a  complex  system  of  such  associations. 
Man  does  not  act  or  function  individually,  but  as  a  mem- 
ber of  some  group.  So  important  have  other  authorities 
considered  this  matter  of  group  interest,  that  some  main- 
tain that  sociology  is  primarily  a  study  of  groups,  group 
interests,  and  group  action.  While  we  cannot  go  to  that 
extreme,  we  must  give  due  weight  to  this  factor  in  society. 
Groups  are  to  society  what  words  are  to  speech  or  to  a 
story;  yet  taken  by  themselves  they  are  often  dull  and 
uninteresting.  We  must  take  into  consideration  their 
arrangement  and  the  thought  back  of  them.  To  study 
groups  we  must  study  the  interests  underlying  them,  the 
institutions  which  they  produce,  and  their  relation  to 
society  at  large.  We  must  not  forget  society  because  of 
the  groups;  we  must  not  overlook  the  achievements  of 
man  in  our  eagerness  to  study  the  methods  by  which  they 
were  brought  about;  we  must  not  neglect  the  conditions 
and  problems  of  society  in  our  study  of  the  functions 
of  groups. 

Man  has  instincts,  feelings,  and  intellect,  and  he  is 
prompted  to  act  by  interests  which  are  largely  the  out- 
growths of  these  three  factors.  These  interests  take  the 
forms  of  group  interests;  hence  man  functions  in  groups. 
The  same  group  interests  lead  to  the  development  of  in- 
stitutions which  control  society.  The  individual's  relatioti 
to  the  group  is  much  the  same  as  the  relation  of  the  letter 
to  the  word,  or  of  the  atom  to  the  molecule.  He  is  a  part 
of  the  group,  but  the  group  is  the  stronger  of  the  two. 


Social  Interests  379 

He  ordinarily  has  a  hand  in  molding  the  group,  but  only 
as  a  member  of  the  group.  Occasionally  the  indi- 
vidual is  able  to  break  up  the  group  and  form  another,  or 
to  remain  in  the  group  and  control  it;  in  fact,  we  often 
find  such  cases,  but  the  burden  of  the  proof  is  on  the 
leader,  and  he  must  function  for  the  best  interests  of  the 
group  in  order  to  hold  this  position  and  convince  his 
followers  that  he  is  doing  so.  In  general,  it  is  the  group 
which  controls  the  individual  and  not  the  individual  which 
controls  the  group. 


READING  REFERENCES 

BLACKMAE,  F.  W.  AND  GILLIN,  J.  L.,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part 

III,  Chap.  II. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Chaps.  VII  and  VIII, 
SMALL,  ALBION  W.,  General  Sociology,  Chaps.  XXXI-XXXVII. 
WARD,  LESTER  F.,  Pure  Sociology,  Chap.  XII. 
BALDWIN,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Chap.  XI. 
GIDDINGS,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  79-194;  263-375. 
FAIRBANKS,  ARTHUR,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Part  II. 
DEALEY,  J.  Q.  AND  WARD,  L.  F.,  Text-Book  in  Sociology,  Part  II. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects, 

Chap.  XII. 
PARK,  R.  E.  AND  BURGESS,  E.  W.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Science 

of  Sociology,  Chaps.  Ill  and  VII. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SOCIAL  CONTROL 

By  social  control  we  mean  that  form  of  control  which 
directs  or  governs  the  action  of  society  or  the  groups  that 
compose  society.  It  is  that  control  which  determines  the 
action  of  the  group,  rather  than  the  action  of  the  in- 
dividual. As  each  individual  is  a  member  of  several 
groups,  he  is  always  affected  by  such  form  of  control, 
but  he  is  affected  as  a  member  of  a  group,  rather  than  as 
an  individual. 

Some  type  of  social  control  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
any  form  of  organized  society;  in  fact,  we  are  so  accus- 
tomed to  social  control  that  we  do  not  resent  it.  We 
do  not  even  recognize  it,  merely  taking  it  as  a  matter 
of  course.  But  social  control  is  not  confined  to  highly 
civilized  races,  for  the  savage  tribes  as  well  have  their 
systems  of  social  control.  The  savage  is  governed  by 
superstition,  fear,  and  belief  in  charms  and  spirits,  even 
though  he  does  not  have  well-developed  social  institu- 
tions. The  form  of  control  may  be  different,  but  the  idea 
is  the  same.  The  control  is  there  and  is  just  as  effective, 
even  if  the  means  of  working  it  out  may  not  be  like  those 
of  modern  society. 

"VVe  do  not  contend  at  all  that  this  social  control  is 
consciously  worked  out,  for  it  may  be  unconscious.  As 
we  shall  see,  public  opinion  is  probably  the  greatest  means 
of  social  control  that  we  have  had,  and  it  generally  guides 
our  action  without  our  forming  any  idea  about  it.  Art, 
education,  custom,  and  habit  rule  us  in  much  the  same 
way.  Fear,  superstition,  and  belief  in  spirits  controlled 
the  savage  in  a  similar  manner.  Law  is  consciously  felt, 
and  religion  often  is,  although  not  necessarily  so. 

Since  the  action  of  the  individual  affects  society,  it  is 

380 


Social  Control  381 

only  right  that  society  should  have  some  say  in  regard 
to  what  that  action  shall  be.  Society  must  have  the  right 
to  defend  itself  against  the  actions  of  unsocial  individuals, 
as  well  as  to  curb  the  extreme  members  of  the  group, 
and  to  compel  the  individual  members  to  conform  more 
or  less  strictly  to  group  standards  and  ideals.  Not  only 
is  control  necessary  for  the  advance  and  progress  of  the 
human  race,  it  has  been  found  absolutely  essential  to  life 
itself.  As  society  becomes  more  intricate  and  life  more 
complex,  social  control  becomes  more  imperative.  As 
population  becomes  denser,  it  becomes  more  necessary 
for  society  to  lay  down  rules  and  regulations  in  regard 
to  the  actions  of  its  members  so  as  to  protect  the  rights 
of  each,  to  prevent  the  strong  from  exploiting  the  weak, 
and  to  keep  the  anti-social  individuals  from  injuring  the 
life  of  normal  society.  As  Ross  maintains,1  sympathy, 
sociability,  and  a  sense  of  justice  are  common  to  all,  and 
produce  what  he  calls  a  " natural  order." 

We  all  have  the  ability  to  feel  for  others,  though  it 
is  more  developed  in  certain  persons.  With  many  it 
applies  only  to  those  who  are  near,  or  who  come  into 
contact  with  them,  while  in  others  it  reaches  out  into 
the  higher  feeling  of  altruism.  With  some  it  means  only 
an  attempt  to  avoid,  with  others  an  attempt  to  relieve, 
and  with  still  others  a  desire  to  remedy  permanently. 
We  are  all  more  or  less  social  beings;  we  cannot  live 
isolated  lives.  We  are  compelled  to  come  into  contact 
with  our  fellow-men,  but  we  also  crave  their  company. 
Man  was  in  early  times  forced  to  be  social  to  some  extent 
to  live,  and  in  order  to  advance  we  also  are  compelled  to 
be  social.  In  the  same  way,  there  is  in  all  of  us  a  sense 
of  justice  or  love  of  fair  play,  a  desire  to  put  contestants 
on  an  equal  footing.  This  is  especially  seen  to-day  in 
our  games.  The  same  feeling  exists  among  savages.  It 
is  much  more  highly  developed  in  some  races,  however, 
than  in  others,  because  of  more  favorable  environment. 
For  the  same  reasons  it  is  more  highly  developed  among 
men  than  women,  although  sympathy  is  just  the  opposite, 

1  Bo*s,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Part  I. 


382  Social  Control 

being  stronger  among  women,  because  it  is  a  natural  out- 
growth of  the  family  relationship. 

This  sense  of  justice  is  not  necessarily  sympathy,  for 
justice  is  an  attempt  to  make  people  equal  and  to  treat 
them  as  equals,  while  sympathy  deals  with  unequals.  It 
is  the  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  strong  of  compassion 
for  the  weak,  and  for  this  very  reason  is  generally  scorned 
by  those  who  are  strong,  and  is  sought  only  when  one 
feels  his  weakness  and  misfortune.  Because  of  this  fact 
we  cannot  have  a  strong  sense  of  justice  when  we 
recognize  such  class  distinctions  as  master  and  slave,  or 
lord  and  serf.  The  greater  the  inequality  the  less  chance 
for  justice,  and  the  harder  it  is  for  justice  to  be  recog- 
nized. Coupled  with  this  sense  of  justice  is  a  sense  of 
resentment  if  justice  is  not  enforced.  Not  only  do  these 
three — sympathy,  sociability,  and  a  sense  of  justice — 
produce  a  social  order,  but  they  also  form  a  basis  for 
social  control,  a  reason  for  its  existence,  and  a  ground- 
work for  its  structure. 

We  find  struggles  between  different  forms  of  social 
control,  between  different  codes.  We  see  this  strongly 
developed  when  one  nation  conquers  another — e.g.,  the 
conquest  of  Persia  by  the  Greeks,  of  the  Britons  by  the 
Normans,  and  of  the  Poles  and  Finns  by  the  Russians. 
We  have  seen  it,  though  less  forcibly,  in  this  coun- 
try when  we  have  received  a  mass  of  immigrants. 
We  find  group  morality  coming  into  conflict  with  indi- 
vidual morality.  The  individual  is  not  always  wrong; 
in  fact,  group  morality  is  often  lower  than  individual 
morality,  or  perhaps  we  ought  to  say  does  not  rise  to 
such  heights.  I\^  holds  more  of  a  middle  ground.  We 
find  the  group  stifling  reform  because  the  reform  is  too 
advanced  for  the  group  to  appreciate.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  find  the  group  holding  in  restraint  the  wayward  in- 
dividual. If  group  morality  were  not  lower  than  the 
highest  individual  morality,  it  could  not  be  enforced. 

To  have  social  control  we  must  also  have  some  form 
of  authority  to  enforce  it.  To  provide  this  authority 
there  have  sprung  up  at  various  times  different  classes 


Social  Control  383 

which  have  exercised  control,  for  example  prophets  and 
priests,  who  have  been  especially  powerful  in  times  of 
danger  and  ignorance;  elders,  who  among  many  peoples, 
such  as  the  American  Indians,  have  been  looked  up  to 
for  advice  and  counsel  because  of  their  age  and  ex- 
perience ;  the  nobility  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  in 
some  countries  even  to  this  day ;  the  capitalist  class,  who 
have  controlled  whenever  industry  has  been  highly  de- 
veloped; the  educated  and  what  Professor  Ross  calls  the 
"elite"  2  like  the  Greek  philosophers,  the  Stoics,  the  early 
Christian  Fathers,  and  the  Mandarins  of  China.  Then 
there  have  always  been  individuals  or  geniuses,  who  by 
their  own  personality  and  brilliancy  have  gained  power, 
such  as  Napoleon,  Cromwell,  and  Hannibal.  The  charac- 
ter of  control  varies  with  every  change  in  the  ruling 
class,  or  with  every  modification  in  the  system  of  con- 
trol. The  management  of  the  capitalist  is  different  from 
that  of  the  old  landlords,  which  precedes  it;  also  the  con- 
trol of  the  educated  differs  from  that  of  the  elders. 

Means  of  Social  Control. — Public  Opinion. — Of  the 
various  means  or  forms  which  social  control  takes,  public 
opinion  is  probably  the  most  important,  and  also  the  one 
ordinarily  least  considered  by  the  average  person.  Ross 
divides  this  control  into  three  parts:3  (1)  Public  senti- 
ment, or  the  admiration,  abhorrence,  respect,  or  disgust 
expressed  by  the  public  in  regard  to  an  act  or  event. 
(2)  Public  judgment,  or  the  forming  of  an  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  act,  leading  to  a  condemnation  or  approval, 
or  a  decision  as  to  whether  the  act  is  good  or  bad,  advan- 
tageous or  disadvantageous.  (3)  Public  act,  or  measure 
taken  by  the  public,  other  than  the  sentiment  or  judg- 
ment mentioned,  in  regard  to  the  act,  in  order  to  affect 
conduct,  to  control  such  acts  or  actions — to  stop  them, 
or  prevent  their  repetition  in  the  future. 

Public  opinion  is  expressed  by  the  snub,  the  cut,  the 
cold  shoulder;  its  aim  is  generally  to  ostracize.  It  finds 
expression  both  through  the  individualistic  act  and 

"Boss,  E.  A.  Social  Control,  p.  83. 
•Boss,  E.  A.,  Social  Control. 


384  Social  Control 

through  the  press,  the  pulpit,  and  public  resolutions.  It 
is  brought  vividly  to  our  minds  by  the  cartoon,  the 
popular  song,  the  poster,  and  by  any  means  that  will 
help  to  influence  and  express  public  sentiment.  But  public 
opinion  does  not  always  confine  itself  to  such  mild  means 
of  expression;  it  sometimes  becomes  violent,  and  ends  by 
riding  the  offender  on  a  rail,  by  applying  a  coat  of  tar 
and  feathers,  or  by  lynching.  It  breaks  into  the  home 
and  interferes  with  family  life,  where  the  offense  is  such 
as  wife-beating  or  cruelty  to  children.  It  rides  over  laws 
and  enforces  its  decisions  in  spite  of  law.  It  compels 
government  officials  to  act.  Public  opinion  ostracizes 
those  who  do  not  go  with  the  crowd.  People  will  have 
little  to  do  with  the  persons  who  differ  with  them.  "While 
stronger  in  some  places  than  in  others,  the  force  of  public 
opinion  is  felt  in  all  sections  of  any  country. 

The  United  States  government  made  very  effective  use 
of  public  opinion  in  marketing  its  Liberty  Bonds,  selling 
War  Savings  Stamps,  enforcing  food  regulations,  and 
teaching  methods  of  conservation  and  economy  during 
the  past  war.  It  was  also  made  use  of  by  the  Red  Cross, 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  other  organizations.  In  all  probability 
the  tremendous  success  of  America's  war  program  was 
due  more  to  the  force  of  public  opinion  than  to  any  other 
single  cause. 

Public  opinion  is  extremely  irregular  in  its  actions,  and 
is  much  less  uniform  than  law,  although  often  more  effec- 
tive. It  is  often  unjust,  and  while  it  may  right  great 
wrongs,  as  the  demanding  of  the  Magna  Charta,  the 
establishment  of  liberty  in  France,  the  forcing  of  the 
president  of  France  to  pardon  Dreyfus,  and  compelling 
of  the  mills  in  Massachusetts  to  grant  increases  in  wages 
after  the  Lawrence  strike  in  1912,  it  has  on  the  other 
hand  demanded  and  obtained  the  execution  of  many  of 
the  world's  greatest  benefactors,  among  whom  have  been 
Christ,  Socrates,  Huss,  and  innumerable  other  religious 
and  political  reformers.  In  fact,  all  nations  appear  to 
have  killed  or  persecuted  their  greatest  benefactors. 
Public  opinion  often  sets  out  to  right  some  great  wrong, 


Social  Control  385 

but  when  the  wrong  is  overthrown,  instead  of  stopping 
and  calming  down  it  continues  and  becomes  an  ungovern- 
able menace,  as  shown  by  the  French  Revolution,  and 
still  more  recently  by  the  activities  of  the  Bolsheviki  in 
Russia. 

Effects  of  Public  Opinion. — (1)  Probably  the  most  last- 
ing effect  of  public  opinion  is  found  in  our  legal  statutes. 
Laws  could  not  be  made,  still  less  enforced,  unless  backed 
up  by  public  opinion.  The  prohibition  laws  in  Kansas 
and  Maine  could  not  be  enforced  until  public  opinion 
was  thoroughly  in  favor  of  them;  then  enforcement  was 
comparatively  easy  and  effective.  (2)  Court  decisions 
are  influenced  by  it.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  as  a  result  of 
public  opinion  the  Supreme  Court  has  in  recent  years 
given  much  more  liberal  interpretation  to  the  Federal 
Constitution.  A  good  illustration  of  this  is  the  change 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  Sherman  anti-trust  act.  (3) 
Policies  of  nations  are  dictated  by  it ;  the  breaking  of  the 
Triple  Alliance  by  Italy  in  the  Great  War  is  a  good 
example  from  modern  times.  The  people  of  Italy  were 
in  sympathy  with  France,  and  not  with  Germany  or 
Austria,  and  they  compelled  the  Italian  government  to 
fight  with  the  Allies,  instead  of  joining  the  countries 
with  which  she  had  an  alliance.  In  a  republic  this  type 
of  influence  is  still  stronger.  (4)  As  already  suggested, 
it  controls  the  actions  of  individuals,  even  if  the  indi- 
vidual is  supposed  to  be  disinterested  and  impartial. 
This  is  seen  every  day  in  baseball  games,  when  not  only 
the  actions  of  the  players  but  also  the  decisions  of  the 
umpires  are  all  too  often  influenced  by  the  actions  of 
the  crowd.  In  fact,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  find  a 
competent  umpire,  one  who  can  render  fair  decisions, 
in  spite  of  players  or  the  crowd. 

The  growth  of  public  opinion  depends  upon  the  free- 
dom of  communication,  particularly  freedom  of  speech 
and  freedom  of  the  press.  Its  control  is  much  greater 
in  a  republic  like  the  United  States  than  in  such  a  country 
as  Russia,  or  even  Germany.  Leaders  must  respect  publio 


386  Social  Control 

opinion  if  they  are  to  succeed.  The  successful  politician 
feels  the  pulse  of  the  people  and  expresses  his  policies 
along  the  lines  with  which  the  public  is  in  sympathy. 
Theodore  Roosevelt  is  probably  the  best  recent  example 
that  can  be  found  of  the  politician  who  practiced  this 
method — perhaps  the  best  that  the  United  States  has  ever 
produced.  On  the  other  hand,  some  public  men  have 
managed  to  be  just  in  advance  of  the  people ;  and  have 
promulgated  policies  before  the  people  were  ready  for 
them.  Later  on  many  of  these  same  policies  were  adopted 
after  they  became  popular.  No  great  movement  can 
succeed  unless  supported  by  public  opinion.  If  public 
opinion  is  against  a  reform  or  a  progressive  policy,  public 
opinion  has  to  be  changed  by  a  course  of  advertising  and 
publicity  before  the  measure  can  be  carried  through  or 
made  effective.  While  irregular  and  erratic,  public 
opinion  is  one  of  the  strongest  and  farthest-reaching 
means  of  social  control  that  we  have.  The  public  can- 
not be  "damned";  it  has  to  be  catered  to. 

Law. — The  importance  of  law  as  a  means  of  social  con- 
trol is  self-evident,  and  the  majority  of  people  would 
probably  put  it  first  in  the  order  of  importance;  but  in 
reality  it  is  secondary  to  public  opinion.  In  fact,  as  we 
have  seen,  it  is  merely  a  reflection  or  echo  of  public 
opinion;  it  represents  the  crystallization  of  public  opinion. 
Laws  are  the  rules  of  society  laid  down  for  its  govern- 
ment. They  are  to  protect  society,  to  guard  the  indi- 
vidual against  molestation,  and  to  protect  the  public 
against  the  acts  of  the  unsocial.  In  order  to  protect, 
law  takes  into  its  hands  the  right  of  punishment.  As 
we  shall  see  in  a  later  chapter  on  crime,  the  theory  of 
this  punishment  has  changed.  At  first  punishment  wa's 
regarded  as  a  means  of  revenge,  and  then  to  repress  or 
stamp  out  the  so-called  criminal  classes;  this  theory  has 
gradually  changed  to  one  of  reformation  of  the  criminal, 
and  finally  the  prevention  of  crime.  Yet  the  main  idea 
of  punishment  has  been  to  protect  society. 

As  a  means  of  control,  law  is  more  regular  and 
methodical  than  public  opinion,  and  for  that  reason  it  is 


Social  Control  387 

generally  slower  and  clumsier.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
more  accurate,  although  we  find  some  laws  that  are  bad 
just  as  we  find  public  opinion  sometimes  in  the  wrong. 
Laws  are  often  evaded  and  shrewd  lawyers  find  loop- 
holes in  them;  in  fact,  law  often  punishes  those  who  do 
not  deserve  it  and  allows  those  who  do  deserve  it  to 
escape.  While  law  follows  public  opinion,  it  is  often 
far  in  the  rear ;  it  can  never  precede.  Probably  the  bulk 
of  the  large  fortunes  in  this  country  were  accumulated 
by,  or  had  their  start  in,  methods  which  to-day  would  be 
criminal,  but  which  were  legal  at  the  time  of  the  amass- 
ing of  the  fortune,  as  there  were  no  laws  preventing  such 
practices  as  rebating,  pooling,  stock-watering,  forming 
inter-locking  directorates,  paying  starvation  wages,  hood- 
ling,  employing  child  labor,  adulteration,  under-cutting 
and  under-selling,  and  other  unfair  methods  of  compe- 
tition. While  law  is  clumsy  and  unjust  at  times,  it  is 
necessary.  What  we  need  is  not  less  law,  but  more  effi- 
cient law,  more  effective  legal  machinery,  and  more 
efficient  courts.  Most  of  our  criticisms  of  law  are  at- 
tributable to  the  inefficiency  of  our  courts  rather  than 
to  the  inadequacy  of  our  laws. 

Religion. — Religion,  or  the  belief  in  some  superhuman 
personage  or  power,  and  faith  in  that  power  or  person,  has 
always  been  one  of  the  greatest  controlling  factors  in  human 
life.  It  probably  governs  the  life  of  the  savage  far  more 
than  the  civilized  person.  In  the  past  this  control  was  exer- 
cised largely  through  the  fear  of  bodily  pain  or  of  future 
torment.  The  religion  of  the  savage  was  largely  one  of 
magic  and  superstition.  He  did  not  do  certain  acts  be- 
cause he  believed  that  doing  them,  or  failing  to  do  them, 
would  bring  a  penalty  or  punishment.  He  performed 
certain  rites  before  planting  his  crop,  for  fear  that  if  he 
omitted  them  the  seed  would  not  grow,  or  he  would  not 
be  able  to  reap  a  harvest.  He  performed  other  rites 
before  setting  out  on  a  warlike  campaign,  for  fear  that  the 
gods  or  spirits  would  not  bring  him  victory  if  he  neglected 
them.  He  avoided  doing  certain  things  as,  for  example, 
the  killing  of  a  sacred  animal,  for  fear  that  the  act  would 


888  Social  Control 

iarouse  the  anger  of  the  spirit  or  god  represented  by  that 
animal,  and  he  would  suffer  for  it.  When  his  religion 
laid  down  certain  rules  of  life  he  followed  them,  for  fear 
of  future  torment,  lest,  according  to  his  belief  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls,  his  soul  should  pass  into  an 
impure  or  unpopular  animal,  like  a  toad,  snake,  or  worm. 
Fear  of  injuring  the  spirits  of  ancestors,  if  ancestor 
worship  was  the  recognized  religion,  was  a  strong  means 
of  controlling  the  actions  of  individuals.  Fear  of  the 
charms  and  powers  of  medicine  men  compelled  tribes 
to  obey  them  and  carry  out  their  wishes.  The  same  was 
true  of  the  priests  and  prophets,  because  it  was  believed 
that  they  had  some  connection  with  the  superhuman 
power  and  so  had  the  ability  to  injure  or  to  bring  good. 
This  is  evidenced  in  early  Hebrew  history,  when  the 
prophets  were  feared  and  obeyed,  not  only  by  the  com- 
mon people  but  by  the  kings  as  well.  Even  down  to 
our  present  time  religion  has  controlled  through  fear  of 
hell-fire.  Control  is  exercised  through  fear  by  the 
Brahmans  and  Mohammedans,  and  in  many  countries  by 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches,  by  threats  of 
future  punishment.  Emphasis  on  future  life  is  one  ot 
the  strongest  means  used  to-day  by  the  modern  Protestant 
and  Catholic  churches  for  influencing  their  people.  The 
modern  tendency,  however,  is  not  to  emphasize  the  fear 
of  torment  and  punishment,  so  much  as  the  delight  of 
future  happiness  and  content.  In  other  words,  religion 
is  holding  out  reward  rather  than  threatening  punish- 
ment. This,  of  course,  shows  a  great  advance  and  gives 
a  loftier  meaning  to  religion.  It  also  ennobles  religious 
action.  Not  only  the  promise  of  a  happy  future,  but  also 
that  of  pleasing  departed  friends  is  one  of  the  forms 
which  religious  control  takes.  This  is  seen  in  our  custom 
of  decorating  the  graves  of  the  departed. 

Religion  controls  also  by  making  a  social  center  of  the 
place  of  worship.  The  synagogue  of  Jerusalem  was  a 
center  of  both  religious  and  political  and  social  life.  Our 
churches  formerly  served  this  purpose  better  than  at 
the  present  time,  and  we  are  now  endeavoring  to  make 


Social  Control  389 

them  perform  this  social  function  more  effectively.  Our 
city  churches — that  is  the  ones  that  are  the  most  success- 
ful— are  using  their  church  buildings  during  the  week 
as  halls  for  clubs;  they  are  putting  in  gymnasiums  anil 
organizing  baseball  clubs,  basketball  teams,  reading 
circles,  classes  in  manual  training  and  domestic  science, 
and  are  teaching  immigrants.  In  this  way  they  are 
endeavoring  to  obtain  greater  control  over  the  daily  lives 
of  the  people.  If  the  church  is  to  regain  its  old  prestige 
it  must  obtain  it  through  some  such  program  as  this. 
The  church  has  surrendered  to  other  institutions,  par- 
ticularly the  school,  functions  which  it  can  never  regain, 
and  probably  should  not  regain.  Other  institutions  were 
not  organized  and  the  church  had  to  undertake  their 
duties.  A  good  illustration  is  found  in  the  administra- 
tion of  poor  relief.  The  charity  organizations  are  probably 
better  fitted  to  do  this  work  than  the  church — at  least 
they  are  doing  it  better  than  the  church  did. 

Keligion  controls  not  only  the  lives  of  individuals,  but 
also  the  policies  of  nations  and  the  destinies  of  races. 
The  Mohammedan  conquests  were  incited  entirely  by  reli- 
gious zeal,  and  were  not  stopped  until  the  Mohammedan 
horde  met  a  similar  force  incited  by  Christianity,  at  Tours, 
under  Charles  Martel.  Religious  motives  drove  the 
Huguenots  out  of  France,  massacred  the  Armenians, 
caused  the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  to  migrate  to  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Catholics  to  Maryland,  thus  helping  to  settle 
America  with  a  liberty-loving  race.  It  is  religion  which 
has  individualized  the  Jewish  race  and  has  kept  it  from 
being  absorbed  by  other  races.  The  Eoman  church  for 
centuries  controlled  the  policies  of  Europe,  and  was  not 
separated  from  the  state  in  France  and  Spain  till  the  last 
few  years.  The  Greek  church  was  interwoven  with  the 
government  of  Russia  before  its  overthrow  and  was  pos- 
sibly the  chief  support  of  the  Romanoffs.  All  the  nations 
engaged  in  the  great  war  appealed  to  God  for  His 
help,  each  firmly  believing  that  He  was  on  their  side. 
The  German,  Russian,  French,  and  English  governments 
solemnly  informed  their  people  that  God  was  with  them 


390  Social  Control 

and  would  bring  victory  to  their  cause.  The  Kaiser  was 
particularly  desirous  of  having  his  name  associated  with 
that  of  God. 

Keligion  has  also  had  its  influence  in  molding  law, 
and  has  given  us  most  of  our  conceptions  of  right  and 
wrong.  As  we  observed  in  our  treatment  of  the  family, 
Christianity  has  exerted  a  great  influence  in  elevating 
the  position  of  woman,  thus  enabling  the  family  to  per- 
form a  finer  service  in  the  advancement  of  civilization. 
Keligion  has  also  furnished  inspiration  for  artists, 
painters,  sculptors,  and  poets,  who  have  in  return  helped 
to  increase  the  controlling  power  of  religion.  Religion 
has  interwoven  itself  with  practically  all  of  our  social 
institutions :  we  open  our  legislatures  with  prayer ;  we 
appeal  to  God  in  our  courts  every  time  the  oath  is 
administered;  our  coins  bear  the  inscription,  "In  God  we 
trust";  we  figure  time  from  the  birth  of  Christ. 

Many  writers  have  exercised  their  ingenuity  in  show- 
ing how  religion  has  hindered  civilization  and  has  stood 
in  the  way  of  progress.  In  many  instances  .they  are 
correct.  For  a  long  time  the  church  fought  science. 
Men  were  burned  at  the  stake  as  heretics  because  they 
contended  that  the  world  was  round;  because  they  had 
invented  some  new  way  of  doing  things ;  or  because  they 
opposed  some  obsolete  custom  of  the  church.  Religious 
organizations  have  persecuted  members  of  other  organ- 
izations which  disagreed  with  them.  Mohammedans  have 
persecuted  Christians,  and  Christians  have  persecuted 
Jews.  Roman  Catholics  have  persecuted  Protestants; 
Protestants  have  persecuted  Roman  Catholics;  Greek 
Catholics  have  persecuted  both.  Races  and  nations  have 
been  blotted  out,  or  nearly  so,  through  religious  hatred. 
"Witness  the  Armenian  massacres  at  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  Some  of  the  greatest  crimes  in  the  world's  his- 
tory have  been  committed  in  the  name  of  religion.  Yet 
in  spite  of  all  this,  it  is  largely  to  religion  that  we  owe 
our  present  high-standing  civilization.  It  is  religion  that 
has  given  us  our  loftiest  thoughts,  our  best  moral 


Social  Control  391 

standards,  our  noblest  ideals,  our  inspiration  for  a  grander 
and  nobler  life. 

The  present  growth  of  altruism  is  largely  due  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  Christian  injunctions  "bear  ye  one  another's 
burdens,"  "love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself,"  "do  ye  unto 
others  as  ye  would  that  others  should  do  unto  you,"  have 
had  their  influence  in  popularizing  this  altruism ;  in  fact, 
such  a  philosophy  of  life  has  been  largely  responsible 
for  the  developing  of  the  spirit  of  neighborliness.  This 
spirit  is  not  confined  to  Christianity,  but  is  seen  at  its 
highest  development  in  that  religion.  It  is  an  extension 
of  family  feeling,  the  spread  of  sympathy,  the  desire  not 
only  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  others  but  to  prevent 
future  misery  and  distress.  As  we  noticed  in  a  previous 
chapter,  in  taking  up  the  evolution  of  religion,  religion 
is  constantly  growing  loftier  and  higher  in  sentiment 
and  more  useful  to  the  world.  While  the  arbitrary  con- 
trol of  the  church  is  becoming  less  important,  its  influence 
is  still  great  and  will  continue  to  be  so  in  the  future. 
The  control  is  changing  from  one  of  compulsion  and  force 
to  one  of  leadership  and  inspiration.  The  church  of  the 
future,  instead  of  driving  people,  will  lead  them.  Instead 
of  whipping  them  into  line  by  threats  of  hell-fire,  eternal 
damnation,  and  future  torment,  it  will  lead  by  pointing 
the  way  to  a  nobler  life,  to  an  altruistic  instead  of  a 
selfish  existence.  It  will  inspire  people  to  be  better, 
rather  than  compel  them  through  fear  to  abstain  from 
doing  wrong. 

Education. — Education  controls  mainly  by  its  power  over 
the  child.  What  the  child  is  taught  it  will  later  believe. 
The  power  of  education  in  religion  is  perhaps  the  best 
example  we  can  find  of  this.  The  form  of  religion  which 
is  taught  in  early  life  is  the  one  which  usually  is  fol- 
lowed later.  This  fact  is  recognized  by  some  churches, 
particularly  the  Roman  Catholic,  which  gives  especial 
attention  to  the  training  of  the  children  of  its  members 
according  to  the  teachings  of  that  church  and  seeks  to 
bring  them  into  the  church  early  in  life.  The  vast 


392  Social  Control 

majority  of  church  members  belong  to  the  same  denomi- 
nations to  which  their  parents  belonged. 

Our  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  are  governed  largely  by 
the  teaching  we  receive  early  in  life.  The  importance 
of  education  in  childhood  is  so  great,  that  many  persons, 
fearing  that  ideas  to  which  they  are  exposed  may  be 
fixed,  object  to  religious  education  in  the  public  schools. 
Education  not  only  fits  for  life,  but  the  teachings  can  be 
so  directed  as  to  fasten  the  attention  of  the  child  upon 
certain  things  or  to  train  him  to  reason  along  certain 
channels. 

The  power  of  education  has  been  recognized  by  those 
in  authority,  who,  for  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  their 
power,  often  have  kept  education  away  from  those  under 
them.  In  most  slave  countries  education  has  been  to  a 
great  extent  forbidden,  so  as  to  keep  the  slaves  contented 
or  at  least  reconciled  to  their  lot  and  thus  prevent  their 
emergence  from  this  condition.  This  same  policy  was 
followed  by  the  landlords  in  regard  to  serfs.  It  was  fol- 
lowed to  a  large  extent  in  Eussia  even  until  the  recent 
revolution,  for  fear  that  the  common  people  would  de- 
mand a  greater  share  in  the  government.  This  has  always 
been  a  policy  of  the  ruling  class  if  the  submerged  class 
was  in  the  majority.  Education  is  the  key  to  success; 
it  opens  the  door  to  opportunity.  It  gives  one  the  benefit 
of  the  experience  of  others;  it  not  only  tells  what  has 
been  done  in  the  past,  but  suggests  what  can  be  done 
in  the  future.  It  gives  one  the  ability  to  grapple  with 
problems  and  to  live  a  more  useful  life.  The  educated 
classes  have  given  the  world  its  greatest  rulers.  Legis- 
lators, magistrates,  and  officials  are  nearly  always  chosen 
from  the  educated  classes,  as  they  are  considered  the  best 
fitted.  The  superiority  of  some  races  over  others  is 
largely  a  matter  of  such  superior  knowledge.  The 
successful  scattering  and  assimilation  of  information  de- 
pends upon  the  effectiveness  of  the  educational  system. 
The  effectiveness  of  the  system  and  the  usefulness  of  the 
education  determine  to  a  great  extent  the  position  of 
any  given  people  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  The  inven- 


Social  Control  393 

tion  of  the  phonetic  alphabet  and  the  art  of  printing  have 
wonderfully  facilitated  the  progress  of  education,  and 
have  increased  tremendously  the  effectiveness  of  education 
as  a  means  of  social  control.  The  wonderful  superiority 
of  the  Spartan  as  a  fighting  man  was  the  direct  result 
of  the  rigor  of  the  educational  system  which  trained  him 
not  only  to  fight  but  to  endure  suffering  and  hardship, 
withstand  pain,  and  to  be  superior  to  all  difficulties.  The 
education  of  the  Athenian  was  the  direct  opposite — train- 
ing in  music,  oratory,  and  gymnastics — and  produced  a 
race  of  philosophers,  artists,  and  statesmen.  The  educa- 
tional system  of  Rome  produced  its  types  in  like  manner, 
especially  the  Roman  statesman  and  lawgiver,  who  made 
it  possible  for  Rome  to  rule  for  so  long  the  vast  territory 
which  she  conquered. 

Education  not  only  helps  determine  the  government, 
laws,  and  institutions  of  the  people,  but  it  also  affects 
their  customs,  habits,  and  standards  of  living.  With  in- 
creased education  goes  an  advance  in  the  standards  of 
living,  which  adds  to  the  comforts  of  the  home.  It  brings 
in  books,  magazines,  and  papers;  creates  a  demand  for 
better  furniture,  food,  and  clothing,  and  larger  and  better 
houses.  It  affects  the  whole  family  life,  even  to  the  regu- 
lation of  the  number  of  children.  An  immediate  result 
of  increased  education  is  a  decrease  in  the  birth-rate, 
the  family  demanding  more  things  for  the  children  and 
placing  greater  attention  where  it  should  be — on  the  rear- 
ing and  caring  for  smaller  families,  rather  than  bringing 
into  the  world  large  families  for  which  the  family  income 
is  not  sufficient.  A  corresponding  result  is  the  decrease 
in  the  death-rate. 

Education  is  no  longer  being  looked  upon  as  a  con- 
venience, but  as  a  necessity  to  society.  The  period  of 
education  is  constantly  growing  longer.  Instead  of  a 
few  days  or  weeks  spent  in  educating  the  youth,  as  is 
the  time  limit  with  primitive  people,  the  period  has 
stretched  into  months  and  years.  More  subjects  are  put 
into  the  school  curriculum  and  more  is  required  of  the 
student.  Schools  are  being  made  not  onlv.  to  preserve 


394  Social  Control 

the  knowledge  which  has  been  already  gained,  but  to 
prepare  for  further  advance  in  all  lines.  Education  is 
even  being  extended  to  adults;  this  phase  is  probably 
developed  to  a  greater  extent  in  Denmark  than  in  any 
other  country,  although  the  United  States  is  rapidly  tak- 
ing up  the  idea,  especially  in  regard  to  agricultural  educa- 
tion, and  is  extending  this  through  correspondence  and 
university  extension  courses. 

The  school  has  supplanted  the  church  in  many  ways, 
especially  in  the  training  of  the  young  and  in  serving 
as  a  social  center.  In  all  probability  it  affects  the  com- 
munity to  a  greater  extent;  at  least  it  reaches  more 
people.  Our  early  colleges  were  founded,  however,  for 
the  chief  purpose  of  training  ministerial  students,  though 
this  function  has  now  grown  to  be  of  minor  importance 
in  comparison  with  the  other  activities  of  the  American 
colleges  and  universities.  The  transfer  of  responsibility 
for  education  may  not  necessarily  be  a  sign  of  weakness. 
It  may  have  been  best  that  the  church  surrendered  this 
function  as  soon  as.  the  school  was  able  to  carry  it  on, 
thus  gaining  time  for  other  fields  of  labor  as  yet  not 
covered,  and  affording  itself  an  opportunity  to  be  of 
greater  use  to  society.  But  we  shall  have  to  admit  that, 
as  a  force  for  the  control  of  society,  education  has  rapidly 
increased  and  is  constantly  growing.  We  can  welcome 
this  change,  for  education  has  brought  about  a  higher 
standard  of  living.  It  has  enabled  man  to  live  in  an 
orderly,  intelligent  manner  rather  than  in  a  haphazard 
way.  It  points  to  still  greater  progress. 

Custom  and  Habit. — Custom  and  habit  as  social  forces 
are  not  progressive  like  education,  but  conservative;  they 
stand  in  the  way  of  any  change  or  progress.  While  they 
often  serve  as  a  healthful  check  upon  impulsive  action, 
they  hinder  philanthropic  and  altruistic  endeavors,  and 
thus  check  the  advance  of  civilization.  The  chief  argu- 
ment of  custom  is:  This  should  be  done  because  it  has 
always  been  done;  it  is  the  best  because  it  has  always 
been  so ;  it  should  be  because  it  has  always  been.  Every 
change  in  educational  methods,  as  well  as  the  develop- 


Social  Control  395 

ment  of  any  new  science,  such  as  sociology,  for  example, 
is  opposed  by  custom.  Custom  lifts  its  hands  in  holy 
horror  at  any  change  in  religious  beliefs  or  any  different 
interpretation  of  the  Bible  than  that  which  has  been  given 
in  the  past.  New  inventions  in  industry  are  often 
ignored  till  competition  or  hard  times  compel  the  factory 
owner  to  seek  some  new  method.  Home  life  every  day 
gives  illustrations  of  this;  methods  of  doing  house- work 
are  much  the  same  to-day  as  they  were  a  hundred  years 
ago,  simply  because  of  this  force  which  stands  in  the 
way  of  change.  The  greatest  obstacle  the  woman  suffrage 
and  the  feminist  movements  have  had  to  face  is  custom, 
which  would  settle  for  eternity  the  position  of  woman 
in  society.  The  writer  well  remembers  the  refusal  of  the 
authorities  of  Harvard  University  to  allow  Mrs.  Pank- 
hurst  to  speak  in  one  of  the  university  halls,  for  the  sole 
reason  that  no  woman  had  ever  spoken  in  them. 

The  average  person  follows  the  multitude  without 
thought.  A  few  see  another  and  possibly  a  better  way, 
but  follow  the  old  because  they  know  it  is  easier  to  go 
with  the  crowd,  even  though  the  way  is  roundabout,  than 
to  go  in  opposition  to  custom  and  habit.  Others,  more 
hardy  and  fearless,  see  the  advantage  of  the  change,  and 
take  the  new  way.  Sometimes  the  new  ways  eventually 
win  favor,  and  sometimes  they  are  defeated. 

All  social  institutions  change  slowly,  and  the  impetus 
comes  from  within  rather  than  from  without.  The 
burden  of  proof  is  always  upon  those  seeking  the  change, 
who  must  show  that  the  new  is  superior  to  the  old. 

Art. — Art  as  a  social  force  is  more  difficult  to  classify 
than  is  custom.  It  naturally  divides  into  several  branches, 
and  in  operation  is  both  progressive  and  reactionary.  When 
we  speak  of  art,  we  may  mean  poems,  songs,  and  music. 
In  this  respect  art  may  serve  to  keep  alive  a  love  of  ancestry 
and  of  country.  Witness  the  ^Eneid  and  the  Iliad  among 
classic  examples;  and  Dixie  and  America  among  recent 
songs.  It  may  kindle  sympathy  for  the  lowly,  as  in  the 
reading  of  Gray's  Elegy  in  a  Churchyard.  Music  in 
its  varied  forms  reaches  both  the  educated  and  the  illiterate. 


396  Social  Control 

It  may  inspire  soldiers  to  dash  forward  to  their  death.  It 
awakens  sentiments  of  piety  and  affection.  It  is  the  uni- 
versal tongue  of  mankind. 

Hardly  less  potent  have  been  painting,  illustration,  and 
sculpture.  Drawings  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of 
Europe  dating  back  one  hundred  thousand  years.4  Every 
savage  race  has  its  decorative  arts — some  of  them  attaining 
unexpected  heights  of  beauty.  The  hieroglyphs  of  Egypt 
and  Assyria  are  a  blending  of  art  and  literature  which  tells 
the  story  of  a  vanished  civilization.  Greece  is  remembered 
to-day  more  for  her  attainments  in  art  than  for  her  military 
or  political  prowess. 

Nevertheless,  art  can  be  made  to  pander  to  the  lower 
side  of  man.  There  have  been,  and  still  are,  degrading 
types  of  literature,  of  music,  of  the  drama — another  highly 
important  field  of  art — and  of  painting.  Art  is  used  to 
make  vice  attractive,  taking  such  forms  as  saloon  decora- 
tions and  suggestive  pictures,  many  of  which  are  works  of 
art  despite  their  pernicious  influence.  The  nature  of  the 
control  by  art  is  varied;  it  may  be  at  one  time  subtle  and 
delicate,  and  at  another  forceful  and  commanding.  While 
at  times  employed  in  degrading  enterprises,  as  the  saloon 
and  the  brothel,  art  is  on  the  whole  uplifting  and  elevating ; 
and  it  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

Personality. — Control  by  personality  has  probably  been 
exaggerated  by  historians,  although  from  a  sociological 
viewpoint  this  phase  of  control  differs  somewhat  from 
the  "great  man"  theory  of  history.  It  means  the  in- 
fluence of  the  individual  through  his  personality  over  the 
mass  or  crowd.  Such  influence  may  be  due  to  great  size 
or  striking  features,  to  wonderful  energy  or  enthusiasm, 
or  to  some  peculiarity  which  attracts  attention.  Witness 
the  extraordinary  size  of  Peter  the  Great,  the  height  and 
homeliness  of  Lincoln,  and  the  sternness  of  Cromwell. 
Military  leaders  were  generally  large  men  physically,  or 
else  they  had  an  unusual  amount  of  dash  and  courage, 
or  a  decidedly  martial  appearance.  Politicians  find  that 
size  is  a  great  help ;  it  adds  dignity  and  commands  atten- 

'See  Osborn,  H.  F.,  Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age. 


Social  Control  397 

tion.  Sometimes  lack  of  size  may  be  offset  by  great 
energy  or  force,  or  by  such  peculiarities  or  idiosyncrasies 
as  the  wearing  of  an  excessive  amount  of  gold  lace  or 
braid,  as  in  the  case  of  Murat.  To  be  a  leader  one  must 
command  respect  and  to  a  certain  extent  produce  a  feel- 
ing of  awe ;  this  is  the  reason  why  no  great  man  is  ever 
great  to  his  valet,  his  intimates,  or  his  own  relatives. 
For  different  walks  in  life  different  qualities  are  needed. 
A  banker  must  have  a  personality  which  inspires  con- 
fidence in  his  financial  integrity;  a  minister  must  be 
honored  for  his  piety  or  devotion;  a  teacher  requires 
knowledge  and  an  ability  to  impart  it ;  a  salesman  needs 
the  ability  to  sell  goods  or  to  win  confidence.  For  each 
a  different  kind  of  personality  is  needed.  This  was  par- 
ticularly noticeable  in  the  officers'  training  camps  during 
the  recent  war.  Here  the  clerk,  floor  walker,  traffic 
policeman,  and  egotistic  college  freshman  generally  had 
personalities  which  were  greater  assets  in  winning  com- 
missions than  those  possessed  by  their  business  employers, 
or  college  professors.  This  was  due  to  abnormal  con- 
ditions and  the  change  of  emphasis.  This  is  possibly  one 
reason  why  so  often  the  leader  in  college  makes  a  failure 
in  life ;  and  why,  on  the  contrary,  the  student  who  goes 
through  college  without  attracting  attention  often  is  the 
one  who  wins  the  greatest  success  out  in  the  world. 

In  primitive  societies  personal  control,  or  the  wielding 
of  influence  through  personality  in  some  form,  such  as 
control  by  means  of  the  strong  arm,  was  the  usual  type. 
The  leaders  were  chosen  because  of  their  superiority. 
When  they  transmitted  this  rule  to  their  descendants, 
they  established  royal  families  and  the  rule  of  kings. 

There  have  been  leaders  who  lacked  personality,  mak- 
ing up  for  its  absence  by  mental  shrewdness,  cunning,  or 
ether  characteristics.  But  they  were  handicapped  by  the 
lack.  If  one  has  an  imposing  personality,  the  chance  of 
succeeding  in  life  is  much  greater  than  if  one  does  not 
have  it. 

On  the  whole,  control  by  personality  is  difficult  to 
analyze,  although  it  is  always  apparent.  Its  force  is 
probably  weakening,  as  our  personal  contact  with  others 


398  Social  Control 

becomes  less  important,  as  the  readers  of  speeches  far  out- 
number the  hearers  of  them,  as  the  ability  to  write  over- 
shadows the  ability  to  speak,  and  as  control  by  law  is 
supplanting  control  by  force. 

Ceremony. — The  chief  function  of  ceremony  is  to  attract 
attention,  to  impress  those  present  with  the  importance 
of  the  occasion.  The  wearing  of  caps  and  gowns  is  to 
call  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  wearers  and  to 
create  due  respect  for  them.  The  wearing  of  robes  and 
wigs  in  court,  together  with  the  ceremonies  of  opening 
court,  has  the  same  purpose.  Initiation  ceremonies  to 
fraternal  orders  are  to  impress  the  novice  with  the  impor- 
tance of  the  step  that  he  is  taking.  The  marriage  ceremony 
is  to  call  attention  to  the  seriousness  of  the  vows  and  the 
change  involved  in  the  new  relation.  Ceremonies  lend 
an  air  of  mystery,  even  deceiving  at  times ;  but  this  effect 
is  less  pronounced  than  formerly.  However,  the  control 
is  no  less  effective  if  the  onlooker  or  novice  thoroughly 
knows  the  meaning  of  the  ceremony;  in  fact,  the  result 
is  often  more  permanent,  for  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning 
makes  the  ceremony  more  significant.  If  an  institution 
is  necessary  to  society,  ceremony  performs  a  useful  func- 
tion by  calling  attention  to  it  in  this  manner,  and  by  thus 
helping  to  keep  alive  that  institution.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  institution  has  been  outgrown,  ceremony  may  in- 
jure by  prolonging  its  hold.  On  the  whole,  ceremony  is 
a  minor  form  of  social  control. 

Other  Means  of  Control. — There  are  other  means  of  con- 
trol which  might  be  mentioned,  such  as  duty,  allusion, 
and  social  valuations.  Allusion  controls  largely  by  appeal- 
ing to  the  imagination,  by  reference  to  some  established 
idea  or  custom,  or  by  appeal  to  the  conventional,  such 
as  the  propriety  of  going  to  Sunday  school,  or  the  inad- 
visability  of  going  skating  or  fishing  on  the  Sabbath.  An 
appeal  to  group  solidarity,  as  voiced  by  a  political  leader, 
to  stand  by  the  party  and  vote  the  ticket  straight,  is 
often  quite  effective.  This  appeal  frequently  breaks 
down,  especially  if  the  interest  of  the  mass  is  opposed  to 
our  own  selfish  interest.  An  example  is  the  evading  of 


Social  Control  399 

our  personal  taxes  even  though  we  know  that  thereby 
we  make  taxes  higher;  for  we  are  interested  in  our  own 
taxes  much  more 'than  in  the  taxes  of  the  community. 
While  we  are  willing  and  eager  that  others  shall  conform, 
obey  laws,  and  work  for  the  interest  of  all,  when  it 
applies  to  us,  the  shoe  fits  too  snugly  and  we  are  willing 
to  slip  it  off  for  a  more  comfortable  one.  We  are  always 
glad  to  suggest  to  our  neighbors  what  they  ought  to  do, 
but  only  a  few  of  us  are  willing  to  follow  the  path  which 
duty  points  out  to  us.  Yet  this  spirit  of  duty  and  these 
allusions  to  a  higher  mode  of  living  have  their  effect 
upon  human  action.  They  are  reflected  in  our  laws,  cus- 
toms, and  habits  and  have  a  beneficent  effect  upon  civil- 
ization. One  of  the  means  of  control  used  by  the  clergy 
in  all  lands  is  the  allusion  to  a  future  world.  Yet  this 
control  is  probably  growing  weaker  and  is  giving  way  to 
control  by  conscience  and  sympathy,  or  altruism.  In  other 
words,  people  are  reasoning  things  out  more  for  them- 
selves than  in  former  times;  they  are  following  more 
the  dictates  of  their  own  intellects  and  consciences,  and 
relying  less  upon  the  suggestion  of  others.  Education  is 
constantly  supplanting  these  forms  of  control,  because 
it  is  better  able  to  serve  society. 

General  Characteristics  of  Social  Control. — Social  con- 
trol generally  includes  some  form  of  class  control.  Laws 
were  at  first  simply  the  arbitrary  commands  of  those 
in  power;  then  rulers  laid  down  rules  to  suit  their 
own  convenience.  Later  the  rights  of  the  governed 
class  gained  recognition,  although  those  in  power 
still  shaped  the  laws,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
in  their  own  favor.  The  American  Constitution,  fine 
document  though  it  is,  was  made  by  the  capitalist  class, 
working  undoubtedly,  however,  for  the  best  interests  of 
the  country  at  large;  yet  it  over-emphasized  the  indi- 
vidualistic point  of  view  and  has  been  a  hindrance  to 
many  reforms.  The  laws  laid  down  in  England  by  the 
Normans  were  in  favor  of  the  Normans,  at  first  almost 
exclusively ;  later,  after  intermarriage  took  place  and  the 
Anglo-Saxons  were  recognized  as  deserving  recognition, 


400  Social  Control 

the  laws  favored  them  more.  Each  religious  denomi- 
nation or  class,  when  in  power,  governs  for  its  own  benefit. 
The  nobility  in  feudal  times  ruled  in  the  interests  of  the 
nobility.  In  Eome  the  patricians  ruled  for  the  patricians, 
and  in  Greece  the  citizens  paid  little  consideration  to 
those  who  were  not  citizens.  In  fact,  social  control  has 
taken  the  form  of  class  control  in  some  form  or  other 
almost  universally;  even  public  opinion,  the  most  general 
of  all  the  means  of  social  control,  is  the  control  on  the 
part  of  those  who  express  their  opinion,  or  by  the  majority 
or  the  minority  who  assert  themselves.  We  even  find 
public  opinion  consciously  fostered  and  developed  by  a 
few  who  regulate  it  for  their  own  benefit  as  far  as  they 
are  able.  This  is  the  method  used  by  the  modern  poli- 
tician. 

The  question  to  be  considered  here  is:  If  a  class  is 
superior,  should  it  not  control?  In  a  competitive  society 
the  lower  class  is  usually  the  inefficient  one;  that  is  the 
reason  why  it  is  the  lower  class.  Now  if  the  upper  class 
is  the  superior  class,  why  should  it  not  rule?  We  might 
admit  the  validity  of  this  argument,  but  remember  that 
the  rules  should  recognize  the  rights  of  the  lower  classes. 
But  as  soon  as  this  class  ceases  to  be  the  superior  one, 
the  question  comes  up  with  equal  force,  Why  should  it 
continue?  Society  generally  answers  in  the  negative  by 
overthrowing  the  ruling  class  and  setting  up  another 
class  which  for  a  time  is  superior.  The  present  royal 
families  represent  what  were  formerly  the  ablest  people 
in  Europe,  but  they  have  long  ceased  to  be  the  ablest ; 
yet  custom,  habit,  and  law,  and  public  opinion  in  many 
countries,  have  kept  them  in  power.  They  have  been 
compelled,  however,  to  submit  to  public  opinion  and  to 
allow  their  power  to  be  so  curtailed  that  they  have  only 
the  vestige  of  their  former  authority.  The  final  question 
arises:  Should  the  educated,  the  efficient,  or  the  strong 
rule? 

As  has  been  suggested,  social  control  changes;  no  one 
system  remains  in  power  forever.  Neither  does  any  sys- 
tem have  the  same  weight  as  time  passes.  As  the  needs 


Social  Control  401 

of  society  change  we  find  that  control  changes  accord- 
ingly. Ignorance  demands  a  different  kind  of  control 
than  that  needed  among  the  educated;  this  is  especially 
observed  in  the  methods  used  by  different  religions,  or 
by  the  same  religion  as  the  adherents  become  more 
enlightened.  Christianity  controls  in  a  vastly  different 
way  from  Judaism,  out  of  which  it  grew,  and  the  control 
of  Christianity  is  itself  constantly  evolving.  Control  over 
the  family  is  exercised  by  the  churches  in  a  different  way, 
for  churches  now  countenance  divorce,  when  formerly  they 
condemned  it,  thus  recognizing  the  changing  conditions  in 
society. 

It  is  the  same  with  other  means  of  control;  laws  are 
repealed  and  new  ones  made,  because  of  new  or  different 
needs.  Customs  and  habits  are  outgrown  and  discarded 
and  new  ones  formed.  Methods  of  education  change. 
A  hundred  years  or  so  ago  the  classics  were  emphasized, 
later  the  natural  sciences,  and  now  the  tendency  is  along 
the  line  of  the  social  sciences,  because  of  the  recognition 
of  different  needs.  Every  few  years  a  new  method  gains 
prominence  and  after  proving  its  efficiency  is  recognized 
and  adopted.  Conflicts  of  interest  in  society  bring  about 
changes  in  the  systems  of  control,  the  old  system  being 
overthrown  by  a  new.  Inventions  and  discoveries  bring 
about  changes  in  methods  of  control,  as  illustrated  by 
changes  in  methods  of  warfare.  Recently  the  submarine 
and  airship  have  produced  new  problems.  The  railway 
and  automobile  have  likewise  brought  in  new  habits,  cus- 
toms, and  laws. 

A  system  of  social  control  should  exercise  authority 
with  as  little  friction  as  possible;  it  should  be  pleasant 
rather  than  irksome.  It  should  meet  with  universal  or 
nearly  universal  approval,  and  should  benefit  rather  than 
injure.  It  is  much  easier  to  lead  than  it  is  to  drive; 
hence  control  should  stir  up  as  little  resistance  or  resent- 
ment as  possible.  Leaders  can  only  mold  public  opinion, 
religious  ideas,  and  educational  policies.  To  be  effective 
they  must  be  supported  by  the  masses.  When  the  opinion 
of  the  masses  is  bad,  when  their  sentiments  are  corrupted 


402  Social  Control 

and  their  information  incorrect,  the  point  of  view  must 
be  changed  gradually  and  skillfully,  in  order  to  prepare 
the  public  for  reform.  A  sentiment  must  be  created  in 
favor  of  a  law  before  it  can  be  successfully  enforced. 
Control  through  fear  exists  even  to  the  present  day,  but 
we  find  almost  universally  that  such  control  is  inferior 
in  the  long  run  to  a  system  of  control  which  exists  be- 
cause the  people  want  it,  and  recognize  its  value.  Social 
control  should  not  stifle  individual  initiative,  cripple  in- 
dividual effort,  limit  the  selective  process,  or  prevent  the 
struggle  for  existence.  In  short,  it  should  not  interfere 
with  those  forces  which  have  built  up  society,  unless 
those  forces  are  no  longer  useful  and  have  become 
destructive.  In  fact,  any  system  of  social  control  should 
be  able  to  stand  upon  its  own  merits,  exist  because  it  is 
advantageous,  and  cease  to  exist  as  soon  as  it  fails  to 
perform  its  mission.  We  shall  always  need  social  control. 
While  we  cannot  expect  perfection,  our  constant  aim  should 
be  either  to  prevent  retrogression  or  to  bring  about  an 
added  improvement  in  society.  The  methods  used  will  in 
all  probability  be  gentler  and  more  congenial  as  we  rise  in 
the  scale  of  civilization.  Yet  the  control  will  always  be 
there,  and,  in  some  degree  or  other,  always  be  required. 

READING  REFERENCES 

PARK,  R.  E.  AND  BURGESS,  E.  W.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Science 

of  Sociology,  Chaps.  XII  and  XIII. 
Ross,  EDWARD  A.,  Social  Control. 
Ross,  EDWARD  A.,  Social  Psychology. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Chaps. 

IV-VIII. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects, 

Chaps.  XII-XV. 

BALDWIN,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Chap.  XI. 
BLACKMAR,   F.   W.   AND   GILLIN,   J.   L.,   Outlines   of  Sociology, 

Part  III. 

LOWELL,  A.  LAWRENCE,  Public  Opinion  and  Popular  Government. 
SUMNER,  W.  G.,  Folkways. 
MILLER,  A.  TL,  Leadership. 
SPENCER,    HERBERT,    The    Principles    of    Sociology,    Part    IV, 

"Ceremonial  Institutions,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  3-225. 


Social  Control  403 

TYLER,  E.  B.,  Primitive  Culture :  A  Study  in  Magic  and  Religion, 

Chap.  XVIII,  "Rites  and  Ceremonies." 
FRAZER,  J.  G.,  Totemism  and  Exogamy,  4  vols. 
FRAZER,  J.  G.,  The  Golden  Bough,  especially  Parts  II  and  VI. 
Publications  of  American  Sociological  Society,  Vol.  XVI,  1921, 

article  by  LUMLEY,  F.  E.,  "Slogans  as  a  Means  of  Social 

Control." 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

We  are  now  prepared  for  a  study  of  the  organization 
of  society.  Before  we  could  undertake  this  it  was  neces- 
sary to  study  not  only  the  forces  of  environment  which 
affect  the  life  of  man,  but  also  man  himself.  We  had  to 
study  human  population,  how  man  populated  the  earth 
and  increased  in  numbers  and  power.  We  had  to  con- 
sider the  formation  and  development  of  human  institu- 
tions before  we  were  prepared  to  study  the  structure  of 
society  itself. 

We  have  seen  that  there  have  been  many  attempts  to 
classify  societies  and  to  analyze  social  order  and  human 
association ;  in  fact  dozens  of  sociologists  have  tried  it,  each 
one  working  out  a  different  system.1  Simmel  works  out 
an  elaborate  system  and  even  deserts  the  science  of 
sociology.  Giddings  has  developed  an  exceedingly  elabor- 
ate system  of  social  organization,  using  consciousness  of 
kind  and  concerted  volition  as  the  welding  elements. 
Other  sociologists,  like  Small,  Tarde,  Eatzenhofer,  Gum- 
plowicz,  Durkheim,  and  De  Greef,  have  also  formulated 
systems  of  human  association.  Eoss  has  recently  con- 
tributed to  this  collection  a  wonderfully  brilliant  and  sug- 
gestive treatment  of  social  processes,  which  treatment,  al- 
though it  is  as  interesting  as  it  is  valuable,  is  outside  of 
the  scope  of  this  work.  All  are  interesting  and  instructive, 
but  each  of  them  is  more  or  less  incomplete.  Society  is  too 
complicated  and  intricate  to  be  thus  easily  classified.  The 
social  process  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  single  theory,  or 
set  of  theories.  We  shall  make  no  such  attempt,  but  only; 
indicate  some  of  the  conditions  of  social  organization. 

'See  Chapter  I. 

404 


Social  Organization  405 

As  we  have  already  shown,  society  consists  of  a  vast 
number  of  individuals,  who  live  in  groups,  each  person 
being  a  member  of  many  groups  at  the  same  time.  Each 
individual,  as  a  rule,  is  a  member  of  a  family;  of  a  local 
community,  i.e.,  a  city,  town,  or  county;  of  a  larger  com- 
munity— the  state  or  nation;  and  then  of  a  still  more 
expanded  group — humanity  itself.  These  groups  form  a 
system  of  concentric  circles,  each  larger  one  containing 
the  smaller  ones.  In  addition,  each  person  is  a  member 
of  other  groups,  which  are  not  so  symmetrical  and  regular, 
but  which  continually  overlap.  Each  of  these  groups 
affects  the  individual  and  the  individual  in  turn  affects 
each  group. 

Social  life,  or  human  association,  is  a  process  of  living 
together,  the  constant  meeting  of  individuals  under  dif- 
ferent conditions  and  associations.  People  work  together, 
play  together,  pursue  different  interests  or  the  same  in- 
terests side  by  side  or  in  widely  different  places  and 
conditions.  Some  men  are  striving  for  wealth,  others  for 
fame  and  reputation  by  winning  cases  in  court,  writing 
works  of  fiction,  making  discoveries  in  science,  digging 
canals,  building  sky-scrapers,  making  speeches,  perfecting 
inventions,  producing  works  of  art,  or  building  up  institu- 
tions or  industries.  Some  are  plodding  along,  making  a 
bare  living  by  laboring  hard  in  the  mine  or  rock  quarry, 
shoveling  coal,  digging  ditches,  tending  a  machine,  herd- 
ing cattle,  or  working  on  a  farm.  Others  are  making  a 
more  comfortable  living  by  following  some  skilled  trade, 
such  as  brick-laying,  carpentering,  blacksmithing,  plumb- 
ing, or  plastering.  Some  employ  and  others  are  employed. 
To  some,  wages  are  the  sign  of  success ;  to  others  financial 
return  is  a  mere  incident,  achievement  and  happiness  being 
placed  above  money.  Politicians  and  statesmen  strive  for 
power ;  business  men  and  capitalists  for  control ;  teachers 
and  scientists  for  reputations;  and  ministers  to  build  up 
their  parishes.  Some  are  trying  to  elevate  humanity 
through  missionary  work,  social  service  and  relief  work; 
while  others  are  preying  upon  society,  getting  all  they 
can  from  it  without  return,  as  illustrated  not  only  by  our 


406  Social  Organization 

criminals  but  by  grafters  in  politics  and  unscrupulous 
business  and  professional  men.  Some  are  pursuing  call- 
ings useful  to  society,  while  others  are  anti-social  or  are 
living  lives  which  are  injurious  to  society. 

While  the  majority  of  the  individuals  are  leading  honest, 
industrious  lives,  there  are  many  who  are  merely  para- 
sites. Some  do  work  which  is  conspicuous,  like  that  of 
the  statesman  and  industrial  manager,  while  others  do 
work  no  less  important  but  which  is  never  noticed,  such 
as  the  daily  routine  of  the  average  housewife.  Some  are 
seeking  recreation  and  amusement,  while  others  follow, 
as  a  profession,  the  amusing  of  others.  Some  men  are 
gifted  by  nature  and  others  are  stunted.  Some  make 
good  use  of  their  opportunities,  while  others  throw  away 
all  their  chances.  Some  are  attractive  and  congenial, 
while  others  are  repulsive.  Some  are  tall  and  some  short, 
some  large,  others  small  Some  are  altruistic  and  lofty- 
minded,  while  others  are  selfish  and  degraded.  All  have 
some  good  qualities  and  some  bad.  All,  too,  are  subject 
to  change,  being  selfish  one  minute  and  altruistic  another, 
depending  upon  circumstances.  Of  such  material  is 
society  made — a  vast  mass  of  persons  of  all  grades,  in 
all  conditions  of  prosperity  and  happiness.  Society  might 
be  likened  to  a  machine  with  many  intricate  parts;  or, 
better,  to  a  mammoth  factory  with  thousands  of  compli- 
cated and  intricate  machines;  or  to  a  vast  collection  of 
such  factories,  with  all  their  machinery,  which  again  is 
subdivided  into  parts.  It  would  be  impossible  to  complete 
such  an  analogy,  for  we  never  could  settle  upon  an 
arrangement  of  the  machines  and  their  parts.  As  sug- 
gested in  our  first  chapter,  society  is  one  mighty  system 
of  co-operation,  wrhere  each  person,  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, performs  his  or  her  part  of  the  process.  Man 
cannot  live  unto  himself;  he  is  perforce  an  integral  part 
of  this  complicated  system. 

Society  is  a  moral  and  intellectual  organism,  an  organ- 
ism which  is  the  result,  not  of  any  definite  form  of  com- 
pact or  agreement,  but  of  progressive  creation,  a  result 
which  has  been  achieved  through  experiment,  struggle, 


Social  Organization  407 

and  the  survival  of  the  fittest  and  best,  not  only  of  in- 
dividuals but  of  ideas,  ideals,  interests,  and  institutions. 
Individuals,  groups,  nations,  and  races  have  carried  on 
their  work,  done  their  part,  and  passed  away.  This  is 
all  the  result  of  a  gradual  process — a  steady  accumulation 
and  reorganization. 

Communication. — The  channel  by  which  achievements 
have  been  preserved  and  handed  'down  to  later  genera- 
tions has  been  chiefly  that  of  communication — that  is,  the 
transmission  of  thoughts,  ideas,  words,  attitudes,  expres- 
sions of  the  face,  and  the  like.  We  communicate  to-day 
by  means  of  writing,  printing,  telephone,  telegraph, 
speech,  signal,  radio,  cable,  railroad,  steamship,  submarine, 
and  airship.  Through  communication  man  is  able  to 
come  into  contact  with  others  distant  in  space  and  time. 
He  benefits  from  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  others.  "A 
word  is  a  vehicle,  a  boat  floating  down  from  the  past, 
laden  with  the  thought  of  men  we  never  saw;  and  in 
coming  to  understand  it,  we  enter  not  only  into  the  minds 
of  our  contemporaries,  but  into  the  general  mind  of  hu- 
manity continuous  through  time. ' ' 2  When  a  person  has 
a  new  thought  he  is  able  to  write  it  down,  and  not  only 
recall  it  when  needed  but  pass  it  on  to  others.  Before 
writing  was  invented,  the  past  had  to  be  preserved  by 
means  of  oral  tradition  and  memory,  both  uncertain 
methods;  and  as  a  result  much  was  lost.  Not  only  has 
writing  preserved  the  thought  of  the  past,  but  it  has 
made  civilization  more  rapid  and  history  possible,  for 
without  writing  no  accurate  records  of  the  past  could 
be  kept.  The  invention  of  printing,  and  later  that  of 
the  linotype,  have  made  knowledge  democratic  by  placing 
it  within  the  reach  of  the  common  people ;  whereas,  before, 
education  was  expensive  and  within  the  reach  of  only  the 
wealthy.  Books  have  brought  to  us  the  wisdom  of  the 
past  and  have  enabled  the  exceptional  men,  no  matter 
what  their  status,  to  advance  themselves  and  to  uplift 
society. 

1  Cooley,  Charles  H.,  Social  Organization,  p.  69, 


408  Social  Organization 

But  before  man  had  invented  books,  printing,  alphabet, 
or  even  speech,  he  communicated  with  his  fellows  by 
means  of  gestures,  sounds,  and  signs.  This  communica- 
tion was  crude  and  difficult,  yet  by  means  of  it  he  was 
able  to  advance  and  to  reach  that  stage  where  achieve- 
ment and  progress  were  more  rapid. 

Art  has  been  a  means  of  communication,  conveying 
ideas  and  emotions  by  means  of  pictures,  statues,  mosaics, 
friezes,  and  all  forms  of  decoration.  Music  has  perhaps 
to  a  still  greater  degree  conveyed  emotion  and  ideas.  It 
has  served  as  a  means  of  progress  as  well  as  a  means 
of  control.  Both  art  and  music  help  to  hold  people  to- 
gether by  imparting  similar  thoughts  and  feelings  to  the 
mass. 

Modern  means  of  communication  are  widely  different 
from,  and  more  complicated  than  former  methods.  The 
newspaper  brings  to  the  doors  of  people  of  all  classes 
and  stations  in  society  the  same  or  much  the  same  in- 
formation, giving  a  vast  fund  of  information  of  all  sorts, 
sometimes  inaccurate  and  perverted,  yet  information  never- 
theless. Modern  communication  by  means  of  permanent 
records  is  independent  of  time.  Also  by  means  of  its  speed 
it  is  able  to  overcome  space ;  in  fact,  modern  news  travels 
faster  than  the  earth  rotates  on  its  axis.  The  writer 
remembers  learning  through  the  columns  of  a  newspaper 
of  the  recent  assassination  of  a  Japanese  premier,  in  the 
morning  preceding  the  evening  on  which  it  occurred ! 

The  invention  of  wireless  telegraphy  not  only  adds  to 
the  speed  but  aids  in  the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  New 
and  rapid  methods  of  communication  have  made  modern 
civilization  possible;  they  have  given  human  nature  the 
opportunity  to  expand  and  to  express  itself.  "We  can 
almost  tell  how  advanced  in  the  scale  of  civilization  a 
country  is,  by  the  development  of  its  means  of  communica- 
tion: how  many  letters  and  papers  are  sent;  books  sold 
or  read ;  miles  of  railroads,  trolleys,  and  street  car  systems 
possessed;  the  number  of  telegrams  sent  and  of  tele- 
phones in  use  in  proportion  to  the  population,  proper 
allowances  being  made  in  all  cases  for  differences  in  den- 


Social  Organization  409 

sity  of  population  and  natural  features.  That  country  in 
which  the  mass  of  the  population  is  uneducated  and  lack- 
ing in  proper  means  of  communication  is  bound  to  be 
backward ;  and  that  country  where  the  mass  of  the  popu- 
lation is  educated  and  able  to  communicate  with  each 
other  with  ease  is  certain  to  be  advanced.  Communica- 
tion not  only  regulates  the  advance  in  knowledge  but 
affects  all  the  institutions;  it  determines  the  character 
of  the  government,  the  nature  of  the  religion,  the  progress 
of  arts  and  letters,  and  in  fact  all  phases  of  the  life  of 
man.  Communication  is  the  means  of  achieving  progress, 
or  rather  of  passing  it  on  to  others.  Man  is  continually 
imitating  his  fellows,  but  there  has  to  be  communication 
before  there  can  be  imitation. 

Through  communication,  customs  and  habits  develop 
which  later  control  our  actions.  They  develop  much  the 
same  as  do  the  institutions  in  society — e.g.,  religion,  law 
and  government,  education,  and  the  family.  We  take 
these  customs  and  habits  much  as  a  matter  of  course, 
little  thinking  that  by  our  adhering  to  them  we  are  keep- 
ing them  with  us  and  encouraging  them ;  or  that  by  pro- 
testing against  them  and  refusing  to  observe  them  we 
are  breaking  them  down.  In  the  same  way,  each  in- 
dividual is  working  to  keep  up  or  break  down  the  various 
institutions  in  society.  If  he  supports  religion,  he  helps 
keep  it  up;  if  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  it,  he  helps  to 
weaken  its  control,  over  society.  If  he  supports  law  and 
order,  pays  his  taxes,  and  votes  on  election  day,  he  up- 
holds law  and  government;  but  if  he  looks  upon  laws 
as  restrictions  only  to  be  evaded,  fails  to  vote  on  election 
day,  and  escapes  taxation  whenever  possible,  he  breaks 
down  the  authority  of  law.  Whenever  he  buys  goods  he 
contributes  to  the  support  of  certain  industries,  whether 
they  are  monopolies  or  small  concerns.  If  he  buys  the 
product  of  sweated  industry  or  child  labor,  he  helps  to 
perpetuate  those  evils.  Consciously  or  unconsciously, 
each  member  of  society  is  throwing  his  influence  towards 
the  formation,  development  or  destruction  of  the  habits, 
customs,  and  institutions  which  control  society. 


410  Social  Organization 

Society  may  be  called  the  product  of  an  economic,  a 
religious,  an  ethical,  a  biological,  psychological,  or 
philosophical  process,  for  it  is  all  of  these  in  one.  All 
are  constantly  at  work  in  society.  Each  individual  has 
all  these  interests  welded  into  his  makeup  and  is  working 
for  or  against  them.  Each  person  is  influenced  by  every 
other  person  with  whom  he  comes  into  contact,  whether 
the  contact  be  physical,  mental,  or  emotional;  whether 
he  sees  the  other  person  or  reads  one  of  his  books ;  whether 
he  hears  one  of  the  other's  ideas  or  is  influenced  by  one 
of  his  acts.  That  act  may  be  by  his  actual  presence  or 
by  a  vote  in  a  meeting  of  a  board  of  directors  thousands 
of  miles  away,  or  by  instructions  to  some  employee,  work- 
ing perhaps  in  another  state,  city,  or  continent.  The 
person  affected  may  never  hear  of  the  vote  or  instructions, 
or  for  that  matter  he  may  not  know  that  there  ever  was 
such  a  person  voting  or  giving  instructions;  yet  he  may 
by  that  act  be  vitally  affected — may  lose  his  position, 
his  fortune,  or  even  his  life.  Because  of  such  facts  as 
these,  social  organization  is  entirely  too  intricate  and 
complicated  to  be  explained  by  any  one  theory  or  set  of 
theories.  Society  is  too  complex  to  admit  of  classification 
according  to  any  one  criterion.  Society  consists  of  in- 
dividuals living  in  certain  groups  which  are  affected  by 
certain  interests  and  controlled  by  customs,  habits  and 
institutions.  It  is  with  these  things  that  sociology  should 
interest  itself,  rather  than  in  an  attempt  to  catalogue  and 
classify  the  various  factors  in  society,  no  matter  how 
interesting  such  a  study  might  be.  It  is  these  interests, 
forces,  and  institutions  that  we  have  made  the  chief  object 
of  our  study. 

Social  Classes. — Society  is  also  made  up  of  social  classes, 
which  are  determined  by  lines  more  or  less  sharply  drawn 
and  more  or  less  rigidly  enforced.  In  some  countries 
there  are  the  regularly  defined  castes,  as  in  India.  In 
others  there  are  the  different  social  classes,  as  the  nobility, 
the  middle  class,  and  the  peasants  or  serfs,  which  were 
found  in  France  before  the  French  Revolution,  or  in  Rus- 
sia until  the  recent  upheaval.  In  some  countries  individ- 


Social  Organization  411 

uals  may  move  from  one  class  to  another,  while  in  others 
this  transfer  has  been  strictly  forbidden.  In  India  such 
a  movement  has  been  impossible,  one  never  being  per- 
mitted to  change  his  caste.  In  other  countries,  such  as 
Russia  before  the  revolution,  social  conditions  make  such 
a  movement  impossible.  Under  feudalism  the  serfs  went 
with  the  land,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  buildings  and 
improvements,  and  no  opportunities  were  given  them  to 
change  their  condition.  Even  in  countries  with  highly 
developed  governments,  where  law  and  justice  have 
reached  a  high  plane,  like  that  found  in  Rome,  social 
classes  have  been  rigidly  formed  and  the  lines  cruelly 
drawn.  While  the  citizen  enjoyed  certain  rights  and 
privileges,  there  was  a  vast  slave  population  which  had 
no  rights  or  privileges  at  all,  its  members  being  bought, 
sold,  abused,  wronged,  beaten,  tortured,  and  even  killed 
at  the  will  or  whim  of  their  owners.  Also  all  citizens 
were  not  on  an  equal  plane,  for  there  were  different  social 
strata :  the  wealthy,  who  were  waited  upon  by  their  slaves 
and  who  controlled  the  state ;  and  the  rabble  at  the  other 
end  of  the  scale,  who  were  poor — so  poor  that  they  were 
even  fed,  clothed,  and  amused  at  public  expense.  In  early 
Rome  when  luxury  and  vice  were  not  so  rampant  and 
the  sterner  virtues  prevailed  there  were  social  classes. 
The  patricians  represented  the  wealthy  and,  unmindful 
of  the  interests  of  the  plebeians,  who  were  the  poor  or 
laboring  classes,  managed  with  a  high  hand  the  affairs  of 
the  state,  till  they  were  compelled  by  the  plebeians  to  grant 
greater  privileges.  The  plebeians  became  the  common  sol- 
diers, while  the  patricians  furnished  the  officers  and  com- 
manders. Even  in  democratic  Greece,  where  the  city-state 
reached  its  greatest  development  and  where  there  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  liberty  known  in  ancient  times,  there 
were  social  classes.  Citizenship  was  limited  to  the  natives, 
foreigners  being  excluded  from  all  rights.  Even  this 
citizen-equality  was  founded  upon  a  condition  of  slavery, 
under  which  the  slave  was  devoid  of  all  rights.  Such 
idealistic  philosophers  as  Plato  argued  that  slavery  was 
a  natural  condition,  resting  upon  the  inequality  of  human 


412  Social  Organization 

nature.  In  early  Egypt  the  priests  and  rulers  were  ex- 
empt from  all  taxes  and  were  given  all  privileges,  while 
the  common  people  had  no  privileges  and  were  compelled 
to  serve  in  the  army  when  needed  and  to  pay  all  the 
taxes;  furthermore  they  were  not  permitted  to  improve 
their  condition. 

These  social  strata  have  resulted  largely  from  con- 
quests, though  to  a  large  extent  they  have  been  based 
upon  the  inequality  of  natural  abilities.  But  they  have 
always  existed,  at  least  since  history  began.  While  with 
primitive  man  inequality  exists,  it  is  generally  individual 
inequality,  resulting  from  individual  superiority,  either 
physical  or  mental.  But  as  soon  as  social  organization 
is  developed  we  find  social  classes.  One  class  takes  more 
privileges  than  another  and  exempts  itself  from  certain 
unpleasant  duties,  particularly  those  involving  physical 
labor,  and  appropriates  the  pleasant  tasks,  such  as  political 
leadership,  the  priestly  offices,  and  the  management  of 
affairs. 

,  As  civilization  advances  and  life  becomes  more  intricate, 
these  different  classes  increase  in  number  and  complexity. 
Innumerable  attempts  have  been  made  to  break  them 
down  and  to  form  societies  in  which  there  will  be  no 
classes  and  in  which  all  will  be  on  the  same  plane.  Com- 
munistic settlements  have  been  established,  but  sooner 
or  later  they  have  lost  their  communistic  principles  or 
have  broken  up.  Reformers  have  stirred  up  antagonism 
to  existing  ruling  classes  and  have  either  been  put  down 
or  have  overthrown  those  ruling  classes;  but  even  wheri 
the  ruling  classes  have  been  destroyed,  sooner  or  later 
other  classes  rise  up  to  take  their  place.  It  seems  to  be 
impossible  to  prevent  the  formation  of  such  classes;  in 
fact,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  the  argument  that 
such  divisions  are  necessary  to  society  itself.  The  modern 
tendency  is  to  recognize  class  distinctions,  but  at  the  same 
time  to  allow  individuals  to  move  from  class  to  class, 
provided  they  are  capable  of  so  doing,  and  to  prevent 
any  one  class  from  oppressing  another  for  the  purpose  of 
(disturbing  this  freedom  of  movement.  Social  classes  will 


Social  Organization  413 

exist  so  long  as  there  are  differences  in  human  nature  and 
inequalities  of  individuals.  This  inequality,  however,  will 
not  depend  upon  the  class  but  upon  the  individual. 

While  in  the  United  States  class  lines  are  less  distinct 
than  in  most  countries,  we  have  our  social  classes  jusl 
the  same.  Each  locality  has  what  it  calls  "society,"  more 
or  less  exclusive.  Lines  are  drawn  according  to  occupa- 
tion, a  person's  calling  either  admitting  or  debarring  him 
from  certain  circles.  We  have  classes  drawn  upon  lines 
of  wealth  or  income ;  the  ranks  of  these  groups  are  con- 
stantly shifting,  according  to  economic  prosperity.  Ad- 
mission to  the  so-called  "society"  depends  in  most  cases 
upon  one's  financial  rating  or  ability  to  spend.  Again 
we  have  our  professional  class  or  classes,  including 
lawyers,  teachers,  doctors  and  dentists.  Distinguished 
members  of  these  professions  are  admitted  to  and  even 
sought  by  all  classes,  yet  the  members  of  the  professional 
classes  associate  more  or  less  together  because  of  common 
interests  and  desires.  The  skilled  workers,  such  as  car- 
penters, masons,  and  bricklayers,  herd  together  because 
of  like  interests,  and  they  in  turn  form  what  might  be 
called  a  social  class  which  considers  itself  decidedly  above 
the  common  laborers  and  yet  in  turn  is  looked  down  upon 
— or  at  least  has  been  in  the  past — by  the  clerks,  small 
traders,  and  salaried  persons  in  industry  and  commerce, 
even  though  the  skilled  mechanic  may  earn  double  their 
wage.  Clerks  and  salesmen  are,  in  turn,  slighted  by  the 
big  business  men :  the  manufacturers,  capitalists,  bankers, 
brokers,  and  large  merchants. 

While  in  the  United  States  none  of  these  classes  controls 
our  government,  at  least  not  directly,  although  all  exert 
an  influence,  these  class  lines  are  manifest.  While  in- 
dividuals, by  sheer  force  of  wiH  power  and  ability,  are 
often  able  to  throw  off  the  shackles  of  their  classes  and 
mount  to  the  class  above  them,  or  even  to  the  top  rounds 
— or  be  compelled  to  fall  from  one  class  to  another  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  ability — the  classes  themselves  are 
more  stable,  their  members  as  a  whole  remaining  together. 
These  classes  are  often  arrayed  against  each  other  and 


414  Social  Organization 

at  all  times  manifest  class  feeling  and  sympathy.  Many 
attempts  are  made  to  arrange  the  social  classes  upon  a 
scale  of  rank,  such  as  the  "upper,"  "middle,"  and 
"lower"  classes;  but  such  classifications  are  always  in- 
adequate and  are  consequently  subdivided  into  such 
orders  as  "upper  middle"  and  "lower  middle"  classes. 
But  the  mass  is  in  a  constant  ferment,  and  any  such 
classification  is  extremely  hard  to  make,  and  even  when 
made  soon  becomes  antiquated.  Social  classes  are  the 
result  of  social  interests,  and  rise  or  fall  with  the  changing 
importance  of  such  interests.  When  the  military  interests 
are  paramount,  the  military  class  forms  a  high  social 
class;  and  when  economic  interests  are  of  chief  impor- 
tance, wealth  is  an  important  determiner  of  social  classes ; 
and  so  on  with  the  various  classes,  the  position  of  the 
class  depending  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  importance  of 
Jthe  interest  represented. 

The  value  of  social  classes  is  often  assailed  and  as  often 
defended.  Frequently  classes  are  based  upon  conditions 
which  have  passed  and  upon  needs  which  no  longer  exist ; 
but  on  the  other  hand,  social  classes  seem  to  be  an  in- 
evitable, if  not  indispensable,  part  of  social  machinery. 
The  condition  often  brings  injurious  results  to  society — 
for  instance,  it  is  detrimental  to  society  to  have  a  slave 
class  which  has  no  privileges,  or  a  working  class  which 
has  at  best  only  a  chance  to  make  a  bare  living  and  which 
is  constantly  on  the  verge  of  distress.  It  is  bad  to  have 
one  class  living  in  luxury  and  another  in  wretchedness. 
Yet  on  the  other  hand,  if  one  class  produces  more  and 
is  thus  more  valuable  to  society,  it  is  only  right  that  it 
should  receive  greater  reward  and  be  given  a  higher  social 
position.  While  it  is  undeniably  bad  for  society  to  have 
a  condition  where  it  is  impossible  for  the  individual  to 
rise  out  of  a  lower  class  and  enter  into  a  higher  one, 
it  is  only  right  and  just  that  the  individual  who  accom- 
plishes more,  and  is  more  valuable  to  society  than  another, 
shall  receive  more  both  of  the  world's  goods  and  of  social 
prestige.  While  hard  and  fast  social  classes  are  un- 
doubtedly bad  and  while  more  or  less  injustice  is  bound 


Social  Organization  415 

to  occur,  this  is  society's  method  of  rewarding  service. 
As  we  discovered  in  the  last  chapter,  social  control  is 
carried  out  by  means  of  class  control.  In  the  same  way 
.social  valuation  is  manifested  by  class  divisions. 

Aim  and  Purpose  of  Society. — The  aim  of  society  is  to 
promote  social  well-being.  When  it  comes,  however,  to 
defining  just  what  is  meant  by  social  well-being,  there  is 
often  a  great  difference  of  opinion.  Though  the  aim  must 
be  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number  of  persons, 
that  which  is  for  the  greatest  good  on  one  occasion  may 
not  be  for  the  greatest  good  on  another.  At  one  time 
protection  and  safety  may  be  the  greatest  need,  at  another 
time  invention  and  discovery,  at  still  another  industrial 
and  commercial  development,  at  a  still  later  time  progress 
in  literature,  science,  and  education.  The  procuring  of 
food  may  be  all  important  at  one  period,  at  another  the 
solving  of  some  other  problem,  such  as  the  expansion  of 
territory. 

Society  must  strive  for  the  realization  of  the  powers 
of  self-development  of  the  individual,  but  an  ideally  per- 
fect society  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  perfect 
individual.  An  ideal  society  is  not  a  society  where  one 
individual  is  sacrificed  for  another,  where  one  class  is 
highly  developed  and  another  is  held  down  in  bondage. 
Society  must  not  be  content  with  resting  upon  its  past 
achievements,  as  has  been  the  case  in  China,  but  must 
be  constantly  struggling  to  advance.  Social  perfection 
can  never  be  achieved;  yet  society  must  never  stop  but 
must  keep  on  achieving;  constant  progress  is  the  law  of 
life  to  society.  Society  must  continue  to  create  more 
perfect  adjustments  among  its  members.  It  must  enable 
each  person  to  fit  into  the  social  fabric  in  a  more  perfect 
and  useful  manner.  This  does  not  mean  necessarily  per- 
sonal equality,  because  individuals  do  not  have  equal 
abilities  and  powers ;  it  does  mean  equality  of  opportunity. 
Society  is  steadily  striving,  or  should  be  striving,  to  give 
each  person  the  opportunity  to  do  his  best  and  to  con- 
tribute the  most  to  the  world.  In  other  words  it  is  at- 
tempting to  function  in  the  best  possible  manner. 


416  Social  Organization 

Society  must  strive  continuously  to  produce  better 
forms  of  government — governments  which  will  serve 
society  in  the  best  possible  manner.  Just  now  the  ten- 
dency is  towards  democratic  and  socialistic  forms  of  gov- 
ernment, or  those  which  allow  the  greatest  amount  of 
liberty  and  equality  of  opportunity.  The  aim  of  society 
is  to  develop  the  individual  so  that  he  can  govern  himself 
and  thus  make  the  forces  of  control  less  irksome.  In 
religion  the  tendency  is  to  allow  greater  freedom  and 
the  privilege  to  worship  as  one  sees  fit,  and  to  enable 
each  person  to  work  out  his  own  beliefs,  rather  than 
have  another's  theology  forced  upon  him;  this  means 
greater  democracy  in  religion.  Another  aim  is  more  en- 
lightened public  opinion,  so  that  its  control  will  be  more 
beneficent.  Loftier  ideas  of  morals,  higher  ethical  codes, 
and  more  useful  customs  and  habits  are  also  among  the 
aims  and  purposes  of  society.  Greater  justice  between 
individual  and  individual  must  also  be  achieved.  Philoso- 
phers at  various  times,  from  Plato  down,  have  worked 
out  Utopias  and  ideal  forms  of  society,  but  most  of  these 
schemes  seem  ridiculous  to  us,  because  we  have  passed 
on  to  conditions  of  society  far  in  advance  of  these  time- 
worn  conceptions.  Eeformers  have  tried  in  vain  to  es- 
tablish model  communities  based  upon  ethical  or  idealistic 
principles,  after  the  order  of  the  Oneida  Community  or 
Brook  Farm,  but  these  have  all  failed.  At  the  same  time 
society  as  a  whole  has  been  steadily  advancing.  Progress 
is  constant  and  purposeful,  not  accidental ;  and  while  there 
are  frequent  lapses  and  constant  reversions,  society  is 
steadily  progressing. 

Social  Maladjustment. — "We  have  been  studying  the  in- 
terests and  organization  of  society,  and  in  general  con- 
sidering its  achievements,  its  progress,  and  its  success. 
But  society  is  not  always  successful  in  its  attempts;  it 
sometimes  fails.  Instead  of  happiness,  sorrow  and  misery 
are  often  found.  Instead  of  plenty  and  comfort,  which 
are  constantly  being  made  more  possible  with  the  increase 
of  inventions  and  the  development  of  industry,  we  often 
find  want  and  starvation.  Instead  of  fewer  hours  of 


Social  Organization  417 

labor,  which  is  the  general  tendency,  we  often  find  ft 
workday  beyond  endurance  with  little  rest,  relaxation, 
and  recreation.  Side  by  side  with  our  higher  codes  of 
conduct,  which  are  steadily  being  achieved,  we  still  find 
crime,  vice,  intemperance,  and  lack  of  control.  These  are 
all  due  to  maladjustments  of  some  kind,  sometimes  caused 
by  society  itself,  and  sometimes  persisting  in  spite  of  all 
the  efforts  of  society  to  eradicate  them.  It  is  to  this 
part  of  sociology  that  we  now  turn,  taking  up  the  leading 
forms  of  maladjustment :  poverty,  crime,  immorality,  and 
defectiveness.  It  is  this  phase  of  sociology  which  is  often 
given  chief  prominence,  in  much  the  same  way  that  sick- 
ness attracts  more  attention  than  health,  even  though 
health  is  the  general  rule  and  illness  the  exception. 

These  phases  of  sociology  attract  attention,  because  of 
the  need  of  corrective  efforts  and  the  opportunities  for 
service  they  represent;  whereas  the  natural  organization 
of  society  is  overlooked,  because  it  is  thought  to  need 
no  attention.  Social  maladjustment  is  only  one  phase — 
and  an  unnatural  phase  at  that — of  society,  and  therefore 
it  is  only  one  branch  of  sociology. 


PARK,  R.  E.  AND  BURGESS,  E.  W.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Science 

of  Sociology,  Chaps.  IV,  V,  VI,  VIII,  IX,  X  and  XI. 
COOLEY,  CHARLES  H.,  Social  Organization. 
COOLEY,  CHARLES  H.,  The  Social  Process. 
BLACKMAR,  F.  W.  AND  GILLIN,   J.  L.,   Outlines  of  Sociology, 

Part  IV. 

GIDDINGS,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Book  II. 
GIDDINGS,  F.  H.,  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  X,  pp. 

1-176. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects, 

Chaps.  XVI-XIX. 

WALLAS,  GRAHAM,  The  Great  Society,  Part  II. 
HAYES,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Part  II. 
ELLWOOD,    CHARLES    A.,    Introduction    to    Social    Psychology, 

Chap.  XII. 
ELLWOOD,  CHARLES  A.,  The  Social  Problem. 


418  Social  Organization 

CROZIER,  J.  B.,  Civilization  and  Progress. 

BALDWIN,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Part  VI. 

WARD,  L.  F.,  Applied  Sociology,  Parts  II  and  III. 

WEEKS,  ARLAND  D.,  The  Mind  of  the  Citizen. 

Ross,    EDWARD    A.,    Class    and    Caste,   American    Journal    of 

Sociology,  Vol.  XXII. 
Ross,  EDWARD  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  especially  Part  III. 


PART  FIVE 

CHAPTER  XX 

POVERTY 

Poverty  a  Condition  of  Maladjustment. — Most  of  the 
problems  of  society  are  the  results  of  maladjustment,  and 
the  most  striking  and  important  of  these  problems  is  that 
of  poverty.  Yet  there  is  enough  economic  wealth  in  the- 
world  to  relieve  all  the  existing  poverty.  Indeed,  at  the 
very  times  when  the  conditions  of  poverty  have  been 
the  worst  (with  the  exception  of  famine  and  disaster) 
fortunes  and  landed  estates  have  generally  been  the  most 
wonderfully  developed.  When  the  provinces  of  Rome 
were  impoverished  in  order  to  pay  taxes,  wealth  was  pour- 
ing into  Rome,  fortunes  were  being  piled  up,  extrava- 
gance reigned  supreme,  and  riot  and  waste  were  the  order 
of  the  day.  In  France  before  the  French  Revolution, 
when  the  peasants  were  in  desperate  economic  condition, 
the  lords  and  nobles  were  living  in  idleness  and  riotous 
extravagance.  At  the  time  of  the  industrial  revolution 
in  England,  when  there  was  so  much  misery  and  poverty 
and  thousands  were  literally  starving,  fortunes  were  being 
amassed  by  the  owners  of  the  mills.  In  India,  where 
there  is  so  much  wretchedness  and  misery,  and  almost 
the  entire  population  is  living  on  the  poverty  line — to 
such  an  extent  that  when  a  crop  fails  thousands  die  of 
starvation — the  native  princes  and  aristocracy  have 
fabulous  fortunes  stored  away.  The  same  is  true  of  China, 
as  it  has  been  of  all  countries  both  past  and  present; 
where  we  find  great  wealth  we  find  great  misery.  When 
in  our  own  South  the  large  plantations  were  developed 
at  the  expense  of  slave  labor,  the  poorer  whites  were 
forced  back  into  the  sandy,  unproductive  foot-hills.  In 

419 


420  Poverty 

all  our  great  cities  where  wealth  is  piled  up,  there  we 
find  the  greatest  poverty;  the  larger  the  city  and  the 
greater  the  wealth,  the  worse  the  poverty.  One  has  only 
to  turn  to  the  works  of  Jacob  A.  Riis,  to  Jack  London's 
People  of  the  Abyss,  or  to  Booth's  Life  and  Labors  of 
the  People  of  London  to  get  ample  proof  of  this.  Again 
in  the  works  of  Dickens  and  Victor  Hugo  are  given 
woeful  pictures  of  past  conditions. 

Every  now  and  then  we  hear  of  overproduction  of  a 
certain  commodity,  such  as  shoes,  cotton  goods,  woolen 
goods,  furniture,  and  the  like.  Men  are  thrown  out  of 
employment  and  demand  is  still  further  curtailed.  At 
the  same  time  that  this  so-called  overproduction  occurs, 
l>"  there  are  thousands  of  people  who  are  in  need  of  these 
very  commodities.  Men  are  in  need  of  shirts  when  there 
is  an  overproduction  of  cotton;  children  go  barefooted 
when  there  is  an  oversupply  of  shoes;  men  and  women 
are  in  need  of  warm  clothing  when  woolen  goods  are  a 
drug  on  the  market.  At  the  same  time  these  people  are 
out  of  work  and  cannot  earn  money  to  purchase  the 
needed  articles,  or  are  working  hard  and  yet  cannot  earn 
enough  to  buy  them.  While  some  are  starving,  others 
are  wasting  food.  While  some  have  not  a  dime  for  food, 
others  spend  five  or  ten  dollars  for  a  dinner,  then  tip 
the  waiter  another  dollar  for  bringing  them  a  meal  at 
that  price.  If  fortunes  were  leveled,  it  would  be  only 
a  question  of  time  until  the  same  condition  existed  again. 
But  still  if  our  economic  machinery  worked  as  it  should, 
there  would  be  opportunity  for  all  to  make  a  living ;  dire 
poverty  would  be  rare.  Some  people  would  make  more 
than  others. because  they  are  worth  more;  but  our  indus- 
trial system  should  so  work  that  it  might  be  possible  for 
every  able-bodied  person  of  normal  intelligence  not  only 
to  make  a  decent  living  for  himself,  but  to  support  a 
family  of  average  size,  and  thus  contribute  his  part  to 
the  propagation  of  the  race.  Nearly  always  when  men 
are  out  of  work  there  is  work  which  needs  to  be  done 
and  commodities  which  should  be  produced.  Really  eon- 
y  structive  efforts  to  solve  the  problem  of  poverty  must 


Poverty  421 

take  this  condition  of  maladjustment  into  consideration, 
and  try  to  remedy  the  economic  situation  rather  than 
merely  relieve  the  distress  and  misery. 

What  Is  Poverty? — The  question  presents  itself,  what 
is  poverty  really?  When  is  a  person  poor?  "We  may 
answer  in  the  first  place  that  poverty  is  largely  a  state 
of  mind.  A  Kentucky  mountaineer  may  be  considered 
rich  if  he  owns  one  cow  and  a  three-room  cabin ;  a  negro 
may  feel  rich  if  he  has  ''four  bits"  in  his  pocket;  while 
at  the  same  time  a  capitalist  may  commit  suicide  when 
reduced  to  his  last  million,  for  fear  of  the  disgrace  of 
becoming  poor.  An  Italian  peasant  returning  to  his  native 
land  with  five  hundred  dollars  in  his  pocket  is  considered 
wealthy,  while  a  count  with  large  estates  may  be  con- 
sidered poor  if  he  does  not  have  enough  money  to  keep 
up  these  same  estates.  We,  however,  generally  regard  v, 
people  as  poor  when  they  lack  the  common  necessities 
of  life,  such  as  proper  food,  adequate  clothing  and  shelter, 
and  a  hope  of  maintaining  these  in  the  future  with  some 
degree  of  certainty.  We  shall  in  this  book  consider  as 
poor  only  such  persons,  in  the  restricted  sense  of  the 
term. 

A  pauper  is  one  who  receives  aid  from  the  state  in 
some  legal  form  or  other.  A  person  does  not  have  to  be 
a  pauper  in  order  to  be  poor,  and  unfortunately  he  does 
not  always  have  to  be  poor  to  be  a  pauper.  One  may 
be  in  dire  poverty  and  still  be  independent,  and  one  may 
be  rich  and  a  pauper.  Every  once  in  a  while  we  hear 
of  a  person's  dying  in  an  almshouse  leaving  behind  him 
a  fortune  which  nobody  suspected  that  He  possessed. 
Thousands  of  dollars  have  been  found  in  the  possession 
of  people  in  almshouses,  or  of  persons  helped  by  the 
town. 

Poverty  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  standard 
of  living.  What  might  be  considered  poverty  in  the 
United  States  might  be  looked  upon  as  affluence  in  India, 
China,  or  Syria.  Standards  of  comfort  differ.  We  in 
the  United  States  regard  the  education  of  children  as 
absolutely  necessary,  while  in  China  or  India  such  educa- 


Poverty 

tion  might  be  considered  a  luxury  restricted  to  the 
wealthy.  We  consider  three  meals  a  day  essential ;  other 
people  might  get  along  on  less ;  while  in  Scandinavia  and 
Germany  at  least  four  and  sometimes  as  many  as  six  or 
seven  have  been  considered  necessary.  We  consider 
separation  of  the  sexes  in  a  dwelling  requisite;  such  is 
not  the  case  in  some  places.  In  some  countries  children 
are  expected  to  help  support  the  family.  We  object  to 
such  a  condition  and  demand  that  it  be  made  unnecessary. 
So  poverty  depends  largely  upon  custom  and  habit. 

Poverty  is  not  necessarily  a  lack  of  commodities.  The 
Georgia  "Cracker"  is  not  an  object  of  charity.  What 
he  needs  is  not  help  but  a  change  of  ideas.  The  Kentucky 
mountaineer  or  the  negro  does  not  realize  that  he  is  poor. 
Such  people  have  to  be  brought  to  a  realization  of  their 
condition  before  they  can  be  made  enthusiastic  over  chang- 
ing or  remedying  it.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  people 
denying  their  physical  needs  in  order  to  supply  mental 
ones.  We  see  students  working  their  way  through  college, 
even  at  times  going  without  proper  food  or  suitable 
clothing.  We  see  parents  sacrificing  in  order  to  send 
their  children  to  school.  We  see  people  going  hungry 
that  they  may  give  money  to  the  church.  Religion  and 
custom  often  dictate  wants.  We  see  immigrants  and 
negroes  spending  all  they  possess  or  can  rake  together 
on  a  funeral,  in  order  that  the  deceased  may  have  as 
imposing  a  funeral  as  some  one  else.  The  same  custom 
is  followed  with  weddings,  the  future  being  mortgaged 
for  years  to  come  to  pay  the  expenses.  We  find  girls 
wearing  thin  clothing  in  winter  and  furs  in  summer.  We 
find  people  going  without  proper  food  in  order  to  dress 
stylishly.  In  fact  we  see  many  wants  which  are  foolishly 
placed  above  the  real  necessities  of  life.  Again  we  find 
some  who  deny  themselves  for  others.  So  poverty  is  often 
the  result  of  foolishness  and  again  the  result  of  altruism. 

But  society  is  continually  advancing  and  standards  are 
constantly  growing  higher.  With  this  advance  goes  an 
increasing  demand  for  economic  goods.  This  makes  the 
strain  greater  and  the  danger  of  poverty  larger.  The 
poverty  line  is  thus  drawn  higher  than  previously  and, 


Poverty  423 

while  wealth  and  prosperity  may  increase,  the  danger 
of  becoming  poor  may  be  as  great  as  ever — in  fact  may 
even  increase.  We  generally  rank  as  poor  those  who  are 
unable  to  maintain  the  minimum  standard  of  living  as 
set  by  the  customs  of  the  day. 

Extent  of  Poverty. — Poverty  has  always  existed  and 
doubtless  always  will  exist ;  it  only  differs  in  degree.  "We 
find  poverty  in  all  countries,  among  all  classes,  and  in,,; 
all  stages  of  civilization.  There  was  poverty  in  early 
Egypt,  ancient  Babylon,  Assyria,  and  Persia.  There  was 
poverty  in  Ju^ea  at  the  time  of  Christ.  Mohammed  tells 
of  poverty.  There  is  poverty  among  savages,  people 
being  considered  poor  according  to  their  own  standards. 
The  Australian  aborigines  are  miserably  poor,  having 
great  difficulty  in  providing  themselves  with  food,  al- 
though among  them  clothing  and  shelter  are  hardly  con- 
sidered necessary.  Dire  poverty  exists  to-day  in  China, 
where  life  is  one  terrible  struggle  for  existence  among  the 
masses;  also  in  India,  where  a  crop  failure  means  deatH 
to  thousands.  In  our  study  of  immigration  we  found 
that  poverty  not  only  holds  the  Italians  and  Slavs  down 
in  a  state  of  misery  and  distress,  but  also  keeps  them 
from  rising  to  a  higher  state  of  civilization,  thus  causing 
them  to  a  great  extent  to  become  degenerate  and  danger- 
ous to  our  civilization. 

But  poverty  as  a  great  overwhelming  problem  is  not 
confined  to  the  past  or  to  countries  that  are  below  us 
in  civilization.  It  is  present  to-day  in  the  most  civilized 
of  nations.  It  is  not  confined  to  a  few  unfortunates  but 
affects  a  large  percentage  of  the  population.  Booth  esti- 
mated that  thirty  per  cent  of  the  people  in  London  were 
in  poverty,  and  yet  he  drew  an  exceedingly  low  line  for 
poverty.  Kowntree,  after  an  investigation  made  in  York 
in  1899,  finally  concluded  that  27.84  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation of  York  below  the  servant-keeping  class  were  in 
poverty — that  is,  were  "living  in  a  state  of  poverty  (total 
earnings  insufficient  to  supply  adequate  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter  for  the  maintenance  of  physical  efficiency) 
or  so  near  to  that  state  that  they  are  liable  to  sink  into 
it  at  any  moment." 


424  Poverty 

Hunter1  asserts  that,  in  1903,  twenty  per  cent  of  the 
people  in  Boston  were  in  distress,  and  that  nineteen  per 
cent  of  the  people  in  New  York  State  in  1897,  and  eighteen 
per  cent  of  those  in  New  York  City  were  in  the  same 
condition.  He  also  estimated  that  fourteen  per  cent  of 
the  families  in  Manhattan  were  evicted  every  year  for 
non-payment  of  rent,  and  that  about  ten  per  cent  of  those 
who  die  in  Manhattan  have  pauper  burials.  He  conserva- 
tively estimated  that  not  less  than  fourteen  per  cent  of 
the  people  in  prosperous  years  and  not  less  than  twenty 
per  cent  in  bad  years  are  in  distress.  Of  course  this  does 
not  mean  that  that  many  people  receive  charity.  In  1910 
only  about  700,000  dependants,  or  less  than  one  per  cent 
of  the  total  population,  were  inmates  of  charitable  insti- 
tutions in  the  United  States.  With  the  addition  of  those 
who  receive  public  help  outside  of  institutions,  and  those 
in  receipt  of  private  charity,  this  proportion  is  increased 
to  about  five  per  cent,  which  is  the  general  estimate  given 
for  the  recipients  of  charity  in  the  United  States  in  a 
single  year.  The  ratio  is  much  larger  in  our  great  cities, 
being  about  ten  per  cent  in  New  York  City.  When  we 
take  into  account  the  vast  numbers  who  apply  for  aid 
and  do  not  receive  it,  or  those  who  do  not  apply,  we  see 
that  Hunter's  estimate  is  conservative.  This  means  not 
that  this  number  of  people  are  in  continual  need,  but  that 
they  are  in  distress  during  at  least  part  of  the  year. 

Distress  is  largely  seasonal;  it  is  much  greater  in 
winter  than  in  summer  because  of  the  greater  demands  due 
to  the  season,  for  fuel,  clothing,  and  food.  Work  is  often 
less  abundant,  and  the  struggle  to  make  both  ends  meet 
becomes  keener.  The  average  laborer's  family  can  keep 
going  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  it  lives 
so  near  to  the  poverty  line  that  any  sudden  disaster  like 
unemployment — even  if  temporary — accident,  or  sickness 
quickly  forces  it  below  the  line. 

Objective  Causes  of  Poverty. — By  objective  causes  we 
mean  environment  and  conditions  lying  outside  of  the 
individual,  and  to  a  great  extent  beyond  his  control,  al- 
though not  wholly  so.  These  constitute  from  sixty^  to 

J  Hunter,  Eobert,  Poverty,  pp.  20-27. 


Poverty  425 

seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  causes  of  poverty.  As  pre- 
viously stated,  poverty  is  caused  largely  by  maladjust- 
ments in  society,  and  the  causes  are  for  the  most  part 
beyond  the  control  of  the  individual.  While  it  is  very 
difficult  to  classify  the  causes  of  poverty,  the  following 
classification  may  provide  a  working  basis : 

1.  Insufficient   Natural  Resources. — Poor   soil,   lack   of 
rainfall,  too  cold  a  climate,  or  the  inability  of  nature  to  <— 
yield  to  man  a  living,  are  potent  factors.    Such  countries 
as  Tibet,  Scotland,  Arabia,  Labrador,  northern  Siberia, 
and  the   Sahara   Desert  are  regions  which  would  come 
under  this  category.     Many  parts  of  the  United  States 
yield  a  poor  return,  as  the  hilly  districts  of  New  England, 
the  Carolinas,  Arizona,  and  Nevada.    Man  is  conquering 
many  of  these  difficulties;  he  is  supplying  the  lack  of 
rainfall    in    many    places    by    irrigation;    and    systems 
of  dry  farming  make  it  possible  to  raise  crops  with  a 
small  amount  of  moisture.    By  a  proper  choice  of  grains 
regions  far  to  the  north  are  made  productive,  such  as 
Saskatchewan,    Alberta,    and    British    Columbia.      This 
cause  of  poverty  the  ingenuity  of  man    is    continually 
conquering,  either  by  compelling  nature  to  produce  almost 
against  its  will,  or  by  changing  the  character  of  the  local 
industry,  such  as  the  supplanting  of  agriculture  in  New 
England  by  manufacturing  and  commerce. 

2.  Unhealthful  Climatic  Conditions. — Poor  climatic  con- 
ditions are  illustrated  by  regions  which  are  subject  to 
diseases  like  malaria,  yellow  fever,  cholera,  hook-worm, 
and  sleeping  sickness.     Such  regions  as  Panama,  Cuba, 
the  country  near  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon  are  examples.     Science  is  slowly  but  surely 
conquering  these  diseases,  they  are  becoming  less  dreaded, 
and  many  of  these  regions  have  already  been  made  health- 
ful, Cuba  and  Panama  being  examples. 

3.  Defective   Government. — Turkey   probably   furnishes 
us  with  as  good  an  illustration  of  defective  government 
as  any  other  country,  for  the  government  there  has  been 
little  better  than  a  system  of  legal  brigandage.     The  rule 
of    all    ancient    nations,    particularly    Egypt,    Babylon, 
Assyria,  Persia,  and  Rome,  in  which  the  provinces  were 


426  Poverty 

looked  upon  merely  as  suitable  objects  of  plunder,  furnish 
further  examples.  Bad  systems  of  land  tenure,  such  as 
are  found  in  England,  Italy,  Austria,  and  formerly  m 
most  countries  of  Europe,  come  under  this  heading. 
Governments  that  neglect  sanitary  precautions,  notably 
Turkey,  Italy,  and  most  of  the  Slavic  countries,  must 
also  be  included.  Cities  which  allow  graft  in  their  polit- 
ical management — and  the  majority  of  the  large  Amer- 
ican cities  come  in  here — contribute  to  poverty.  Tariff 
schedules  which  put  duties  upon  the  necessities  of  life, 
like  sugar,  salt,  wheat,  and  all  articles  needed  by  the 
poor ;  unwise  taxation,  as  illustrated  by  the  general  prop- 
erty tax  in  the  United  States;  and,  in  fact,  all  greed, 
avarice,  and  inefficiency  in  government  are  strong  factors 
in  creating  poverty.  These  conditions  are  slowly  being 
remedied.  Defective  land  tenures  are  being  abolished. 
Better  systems  of  taxation,  particularly  inheritance  and 
income  taxes,  are  supplanting  the  general  property  tax 
in  most  countries.  Graft  is  being  eliminated  in  our  cities, 
although  it  still  rules  supreme  in  many  governments  small 
and  large. 

4.  Bad  Industrial  Organization. — (1)  Unemployment. 
— Evidences  of  faulty  industrial  organization  are  found 
in  several  conditions,  the  first  of  which  is  unemployment. 
This  lies  at  the  root  of  many  of  our  social  problems ;  for 
society  is  built  upon  labor  and  lays  responsibilities  upon 
man  which  can  be  met  only  with  the  rewards  from  labor. 
In  other  words,  we  value  things  in  terms  of  money,  and 
when  the  power  to  earn  this  money  is  cut  off  our  system 
breaks  down.  Formerly  there  was  a  saying  that  anyone 
could  obtain  work  who  wanted  it,  but  modern  conditions 
have  relegated  this  idea  to  the  scrap-heap.  One-third 
of  the  cases  of  dependency  which  came  before  the  Amer- 
ican charitable  organizations  before  the  war  were  due 
to  unemployment.  If  statistics  were  available  the  ratio 
might  be  found  to  be  even  higher  at  the  present  writing. 
Thousands  are  unable  to  obtain  work  at  every  season 
of  the  year,  although  they  are  not  only  willing  to  work 
but  often  are  capable  and  efficient  workers.  The  supply 
of  labor  is  comparatively  fixed,  but  the  demand  for  it 


Poverty 


427 


fluctuates.  The  demand  for  labor  results  from  the  de- 
mand for  commodities,  which  in  turn  rests  upon  income, 
which  again  depends  upon  labor.  The  process  is  an  end- 
less chain  and  a  break  in  any  link  breaks  the  combina- 
tion. Any  uncertainty,  lack  of  confidence,  or  the  failure 
of  a  large  concern,  as  well  as  any  great  calamity,  throws 
the  whole  system  out  of  gear.  Unemployment  is  an  evi- 
dence of  maladjustment.  Often  it  is  merely  a  matter  of 
poor  distribution,'- and  the  men  who  are  out  of  work  in 
Chicago  may  be  needed  in  New  Orleans  or  in  the  lumber 
camps  of  the  north.  Yet  there  are  seasons  when  work  is 
scarce;  there  are  slack  months  in  every  industry,  such 
as  the  winter  months  on  the  farm,  in  the  stock-yards,  in 
railway  construction,  and  in  any  line  of  work  which  is 
hindered  by  the  cold  weather.  For  the  same  reason, 
bricklayers,  masons,  and  carpenters  are  out  of  employ- 
ment more  or  less  during  the  winter  months.  Some  occu- 
pations are  altogether  seasonal,  such  as  dressmaking,  cotton 
picking,  berry  picking,  and  harvesting. 

The  National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  10  East 
Thirty-ninth  Street,  New  York,  in  its  report,  issued  Janu- 
ary 21,  1922,  gives  the  following  statistics  in  regard  to 
the  causes  of  idleness  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts : 


Year, 
1904  

All  Causes. 
Mass.    N.Y. 

..      16.9 
..     11.2 
9.3 
..     16.2 
14.2     29.7 
8.0     18.5 
7.5     19.1 
8.1     21.1 
8.3     17.3 
8.7     25.3 
13.0     28.9 
10.7     24.7 
5.7 
7.2 
6.1 
7.5 
19.7 

Lack  of  Work. 
Mass.    N.Y. 

..      12.1 
8.4 
..        6.7 
..      13.6 
12.5     27.9 
6.6     15.0 
6.1     13.6 
6.5     18.7 
5.1     15.2 
6.5     20.8 
11.0     27.5 
7.9 
3.3 
4.6 
3.3 
5.3 
16.5 

Strikes  and 
Lockouts. 
Mass.     N.Y. 

..       3.6 
..       1.6 
1.4 
..       1.2 

0.6       0.4 
0.2       2.2 
0.1       4.2 
0.3       1.2 
1.9       0.9 
0.9       3.5 
0.5       0.3 
1.1 
0.9 
1.1 
0.4 
0.9 
2.0 

Sickness  and 
Accidents. 
Mass.    N.Y. 
..        1.2 
..        1.2 
1.2 
..        1.4 
1.1       1.4 
1.2       1.3 
1.3       1.3 
1.3       1.2 
1.3       1.2 
1.3       1.0 
1.5       1.1 
1.7 
1.5 
1.5 
2.4 
1.3 
1.2 

1905  
1906  

1907  

1908  

1909  

1910  

1931  

1912  

1913  

1914  

1915  

1916  

1917  

1918  

1919  
1920.. 

Average.       9.6     19.8          7.4    16.3          0.8       1.9          1.4      1.2 


428  Poverty 

The  same  report  goes  on  to  show  that  in  normal  times 
the  average  worker  loses  forty-two  days  a  year,  seven 
of  which  are  due  to  sickness,  or  14  per  cent  of  his  work- 
ing time,  and  on  June  1,  1921,  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
industrial  wage-earners  were  out  of  work.  The  percent- 
age of  course  varies  with  the  industry,  the  building  and 
clothing  trades  showing  relatively  high  percentages  of 
unemployment  and  the  printing  trades  a  relatively  low 
percentage.  Yet  there  is  no  limit  to  the  production  of 
goods,  provided  the  right  kind  of  goods  are  produced. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  altogether  a  matter  of  overpopulation 
or  too  much  labor,  but  of  maladjustment  between  labor 
and  industrial  opportunities. 

Yet  not  all  unemployed  are  employable.  Generally 
the  ones  who  are  first  thrown  out  of  work  are  the  last 
taken  on  again,  and  the  same  group  is  out  of  work  each 
year.  As  a  rule,  the  least  efficient  of  those  employed  are 
superior  to  the  most  efficient  who  are  out  of  work.  They 
are  unemployed  because  they  are  inefficient,  and  are  at 
the  same  time  inefficient  because  unemployed.  Poor  wages 
mean  insufficient  food,  clothes,  and  shelter,  and  so  less 
vital  energy.  cAlso  idleness  induces  bad  habits^'such  as 
laziness,  drinking,  and  gambling,  and  these  in  turn  reduce 
one's  efficiency  still  more.  We  have  a  vicious  circle  here": 
the  idler  the  individual  is,  the  more  inefficient  he  be- 
comes, and  the  more  inefficient,  the  idler.  The  bums  in 
our  large  cities  were  once  mostly  capable  and  willing  to 
work,  but  few  of  them  now  care  for  a  steady  job,  for 
they  have  been  out  of  work  too  long  and  have  become 
really  unemployable.  As  the  demand  for  labor  increases, 
the  more  efficient  of  the  unemployed  obtain  work,  while 
the  most  efficient  laborers  are  busy  a  large  part  of  the 
time. 

Standards  of  efficiency  have  risen  in  late  years,  and  it 
is  becoming  harder  to  measure  up  to  them.  Machinery 
has  displaced  much  unskilled  labor,  and  intelligence  and 
adaptability  are  in  demand.  Yet  large  industries  like  to 
have  extra  men  to  draw  upon  in  time  of  need,  instead  of 
keeping  a  smaller  number  busy  all  the  time.  This  has 


Poverty  429 

been  the  policy  of  the  stockyards,  which  have  tried  to 
keep  a  line  of  applicants  before  their  doors  every  morn- 
ing. Whenever  the  line  began  to  thin  out,  they  made 
efforts  to  increase  it,  even  to  the  extent  of  encouraging 
immigration.  This  method  has  been  practiced  by  the 
steel  mills,  mines,  and  large  factories. 

Many  unemployed  are  also  unemployable  because  they;  , 
are  shiftless,  unreliable,  criminal,  and  physically  or  men- 
tally defective,  even  when  not  unemployable  as  a  result 
of  the  industrial  conditions.  Many  do  not  want  work, 
but  merely  make  the  search  for  it  an  excuse,  the  profes- 
sional tramp  coming  under  this  class.  Although  this 
situation  complicates  the  problem  of  unemployment  it 
does  not  make  the  solution  less  imperative. 

While  unemployment  is  more  common  among  union 
men  than  among  non-union  men,  it  is  less  destructive  '- 
and  so  of  less  importance,  for  the  union  man  is  better 
able  to  bridge  over  the  slack  period.  His  wages  are 
better  when  he  is  at  work,  and  he  is  better  organized 
and  so  has  greater  resources.  Unions  have  unemployment, 
sickness,  and  accident  benefits.  The  union  man's  bargain- 
ing power  is  greater,  and  so  he  is  able  to  hold  out  for  a 
higher  wage. 

Of  the  different  classes  of  unemployed  the  following 
are  the  most  important: 

(a)  Those  engaged  for  short  periods  only,  who  have 
finished  one  job  and  have  not  started  on  another;  such 
are  those  dependent  upon  common  labor.  This  unemploy- 
ment is  generally  only  temporary. 

(fc)  Those  who  belong  to  trades,  like  bricklaying,  in 
which  the  volume  of  work  fluctuates  according  to  season. 

(c)  Members  of  an  occupation  or  trade  in  which  there 
is  an  over-supply  of  labor.    Trade  unions  try  to  prevent 
this  by  limiting  the  number  of  apprentices. 

(d)  Those   who,   because   of   their   inefficiency,    cannot 
obtain   employment,    perhaps    because    of   being   in   the 
wrong  trade  or  having  made  a  wrong  choice. 

While  potentially  efficient,  members  of  these  groups 
may  become  permanently  unemployable. 


430  Poverty 

The  question  presents  itself,  what  can  we  do  to  solve 
or  alleviate  this  condition?  Indiscriminate  giving  not 
only  does  not  remedy  the  situation,  but  increases  it,  and 
demoralizes  industry  more  than  ever.  To  find  work  is 
difficult  if  the  condition  is  extended  throughout  numbers 
of  people.  Work  may  be  found  in  the  small  place  for 
the  occasional  person  who  is  out  of  a  job,  but  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  work  for  thousands  in  a  large  city". 
Besides,  the  work  should  be  productive  and  continuous. 
If  work  is  provided  by  a  city  simply  to  give  employment, 
very  little  is  accomplished,  unless  some  well-planned  work 
is  undertaken.  Some  relief  may  be  given  at  times  by 
starting  work  which  has  been  already  planned  and  needed, 
such  as  building  a  subway  or  digging  a  sewer.  Commis- 
sioner Bell  of  New  York  introduced  and  put  into  opera- 
tion a  plan  to  give  the  news-stand  licenses  to  the  crippled, 
to  the  blind,  to  those  who  have  lost  limbs,  or  are  other- 
wise unable  to  compete  in  the  battle  of  life.  The  plan 
did  not  mean  the  crowding  out  of  holders  of  the  licenses, 
but  the  giving  of  preference  in  the  future  in  the  issuing  of 
new  licenses  to  the'  crippled  and  maimed.  Some  of  the 
old  license  holders  caught  the  spirit  and  surrendered  their 
licenses.  This  method  was  expected  to  provide  for  about 
12,000  otherwise  unemployable.  The  labor  agencies  deal 
with  this  problem  not  in  a  way  of  solving  it,  but  in  order 
to  profit  by  it.  In  Europe  the  majority  of  cities  have 
municipal  agencies  which  are  generally  united,  being 
especially  so  in  Germany  before  the  war,  and  which  have 
dealt  with  the  problem  of  unemployment  in  a  marvelously 
efficient  manner.  This  has  not  been  tried  to  a  very  great 
extent  in  the  United  States  except  during  the  war.  Prior 
to  the  war  a  number  of  cities  had  instituted  municipal 
labor  exchanges,  but  the  most  of  these  failed  because  of 
poor  management,  the  managers  being  chosen  for  political 
reasons.  The  national  system  of  labor  exchanges,  while 
inefficient  in  places,  did  a  wonderful  work,  and  was  only 
discontinued  because  of  the  failure  of  Congress  to  make 
the  necessary  appropriation  to  keep  them  up,  that  body 
not  recognizing  that  a  great  constructive  work  had  been 


Poverty  431 

begun,  thinking  instead  that  it  was  merely  a  war  measure. 
Insurance  that  is  met  by  employer,  employee,  and  the 
state  combined  is  the  best  method  of  handling  the  situa- 
tion, for  the  problem  affects  all  three.  A  national  system 
of  labor  exchanges  should  be  combined  with  such  a  sys- 
tem of  insurance. 

Unemployment  is  a  cause  not  only  of  poverty  but  also 
of  crime,  intemperance,  vice,  and  gambling.  It  breaks 
up  families,  leads  to  divorce,  fosters  child  labor,  forces 
women  into  industry,  and  lowers  wages.  If  unemploy- 
ment is  done  away  with  or  reduced  to  a  minimum,  these 
problems  as  well  as  others  will  be  rendered  less  'difficult. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Great  War  in  1914  the  amount 
of  unemployment  in  the  United  States  was  unusually 
large,  thousands  being  out  of  work  in  all  our  large 
cities.  Everywhere  it  was  recognized  that  the  war  would 
bring  increased  industrial  prosperity  to  the  country,  but 
few  knew  just  where  it  would  come ;  so  everybody  waited 
and  factories  and  large  industries  laid  off  their  employees 
and  undertook  little  new  work. 

After  a  while  the  demand  for  commodities  as  a  result 
of  the  war  materialized  and  the  slack  was  taken  up,  and 
there  developed  a  shortage  of  labor,  a  condition  just 
opposite  to  the  former  one.  This  was  increased  when 
the  United  States  went  into  the  war  and  began  to  draft 
men  from  industry.  While  the  government  did  its  best 
not  to  disturb  industry  in  its  own  special  demands,  there 
immediately  arose  a  surplus  of  jobs  and  a  scarcity  of 
workers.  So  great  became  the  shortage  of  help  and  so  long 
was  its  duration,  that  we  almost  began  to  accept  it  as 
a  natural  condition.  Instead  of  immigrants  crowding 
our  shores,  emigration  began.  Women  went  into  industry 
in  the  endeavor  to  fill  this  gap,  and  because  of  the  attrac- 
tion of  high  wages.  After  the  war  was  over  and  our 
soldiers  returned,  the  shortage  of  workers  continued  be- 
cause the  demand  for  goods  continued  to  exceed  the 
supply.  The  war  had  destroyed  so  many  commodities 
and  had  postponed  purchases  of  ordinary  articles  to  such 
an  extent,  that  industry  could  not  fill  the  demand  and 


432  Poverty 

the  shortage  of  labor  continued.  After  we  had  supplied 
the  extraordinary  demand,  and  industry  began  to  readjust 
itself  to  peace  conditions,  unemployment  again  began  to 
appear.  This  was  rapidly  increased  by  the  attempts  of 
manufacturers  to  lower  factory  costs  through  wage  re- 
ductions, and  the  discharge  of  unnecessary  labor  and  the 
financial  stringency  which  curtailed  production  and  there- 
fore increased  unemployment.  This  became  greater  than 
normal  unemployment,  for  the  simple  reason  that  many 
women  who  had  secured  positions  during  the  war  retained 
them.  Many  of  the  new  female  employees  proved  superior 
or  more  profitable  to  their  employers  than  the  men  whom 
they  replaced.  While  a  return  to  normalcy  was  in  all 
probability  what  the  country  needed,  and  the  entry  of 
more  women  into  industry  was  not  bad  in  itself,  they 
both  tended  to  intensify  the  unemployment  situation. 
Many  varying  estimates  have  been  made  to  measure 
the  amount  of  unemployment,  but  the  most  reliable 
figures  showed  from  three  to  five  millions  of  persons  in 
the  United  States  out  of  work.  In  the  early  part  of  1922 
business  showed  signs  of  recuperation,  and  present  indica- 
tions are  that  in  time  we  shall  adjust  ourselves  to  a  new 
set  of  conditions.  Just  how  much  unemployment  will 
be  found  under  this  new  state  of  normalcy  we  cannot 
at  this  time  predict,  but  unless  society  takes  some 
progressive  step  to  solve  this  problem  we  can  expect  unem- 
ployment to  remain  as  a  permanent  phase  of  modern 
industry.  A  national  system  of  labor  exchanges,  supple- 
mented by  some  system  of  unemployment  insurance,  seems 
to  be  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  dealing  with  the 
problem. 

(2)  Low  "Wages. — "We  have  already  considered  in  con- 
nection with  family  budgets  the  problem  of  low  wages. 
The  question  might  be  brought  up  here  of  the  ethics  of 
low  wages.  The  usual  answer  given  is  that  the  person 
receives  a  low  wage  because  he  or  she  produces  little. 
Yet  wages  depend  very  slightly  upon  productivity.  The 
product  of  labor  fixes  the  upper  limit  of  wages,  never  the 
lower.  That  is  set  by  competition  or  regulated  by  suppl  j 


Poverty  433 

and  demand.  'As  a  rule  big  business  is  so  organized  that 
it  is  subject  to  little  competition.  If  labor  is  abundant 
wages  are  low;  if  scarce  wages  are  higher.  Some  indus- 
tries make  no  pretense  of  paying  all  a  person  is  worth 
to  them  but  depend  upon  a  surplus  of  labor,  and  so  give 
as  little  as  possible,  often  paying  a  person  with  dependants 
a  wage  too  low  to  support  even  one  person.  The  depart- 
ment store  is  notorious  for  this.  Also  cotton  mills,  espe- 
cially in  the  South,  woolen  mills,  silk  mills,  and  candy 
factories  are  great  offenders.  Many  states  are  attempt- 
ing to  set  minimum  wage  standards  for  different  indus- 
tries. In  1917  twelve  states  had  passed  minimum  wage 
laws,  and  the  most  of  these  states  have  commissions  which 
set  a  minimum  wage  for  each  industry.  A  number  of 
industries,  particularly  those  employing  large  numbers  of 
women,  such  as  department  stores,  candy  factories,  and 
laundries,  have  been  investigated  by  these  commissions 
and  minimum  wages  set.  The  question  arises  whether 
it  is  ethically  just  for  any  industry  to  be  a  parasite,  as 
the  department  store  so  often  has  been.  Has  society  the 
right  to  allow  a  great  department  store  to  go  on  piling 
up  millions  in  profits  for  the  founder's  descendants,  who 
do  absolutely  nothing  towards  earning  them,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  poor  employees  in  the  store,  who  are  not  in 
a  position  to  force  their  wages  up  ?  A  person  who  labors 
and  is  productive  and  efficient  is  entitled  to  a  living.  Yet 
thousands  do  not  receive  it.  The  wage  of  the  day  laborer 
in  the  past  has  not  been  sufficient  to  support  a  family; 
in  fact,  the  wage  of  the  unskilled  laborer  in  general  has 
not  allowed  the  worker  any  margin  at  all,  often  not  even 
a  decent  living.  The  wages  in  many  industries,  such  as 
the  sweated  industries,  have  not  permitted  a  decent  living, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  comforts  of  life.  Is  it  right  for 
society  to  allow  such  conditions?  Practically  the  only 
way  of  dealing  with  such  a  situation  is  by  means  of  a 
minimum  wage  law.  If  such  a  law  were  correctly  drawn, 
rigidly  enforced  and  supported  by  public  opinion,  the 
condition  would  right  itself.  If  the  work  were  necessary, 
the  workers  would  become  trained  and  efficient ;  then  they 


434  Poverty 

would  receive  living  wages.  If  this  increased  the  cost 
of  manufactured  and  retailed  products,  well  and  good, 
for  then  the  people  who  enjoyed  the  fruits  of  the  labor 
would  pay  for  it.  Trade  schools  to  teach  efficiency  would 
then  be  in  demand  and  would  help  to  solve  the  problem. 

As  a  result  of  war  conditions,  scarcity  of  labor  has 
tended  to  raise  wages.  In  many  industries  they  went  up 
even  more  than  increased  prices.  In  many  they  just  kept 
pace  with  the  increase  in  prices  and  in  others  they  did  not 
keep  up  at  all,  depending  upon  the  demand  for  the 
products  of  these  industries.  Wages  are  generally  slower 
to  rise  than  prices,  and  salaries  slower  to  fall  when  prices 
come  down.  Just  now  it  is  too  early  to  predict  what  will 
happen  when  we  return  to  normal  conditions,  but  in  all 
probability  it  will  be  some  time,  if  ever,  before  we  return 
to  the  low  wages  that  formerly  prevailed. 

(3)  Irregularity  of  Employment  and  Seasonal  Work. — 
Irregular  work  is  typified  by  that  of  the  English  dock 
laborers,  who  work  night  and  day  when  shipping  is  brisk, 
and  go  for  days  and  weeks  without  work  when  no  ships 
come   in.     If   industry   were   properly    organized,    such 
irregularity   would  be  reduced   to   a  minimum.     These 
seasonal  workers  should  dovetail  into  other  seasonal  occupa- 
tions.   If  this  is  impossible,  wages  should  be  made  high 
enough  to  enable  the  workers  to  live  during  the  time 
when  work  is  not  to  be  had. 

(4)  Immobility  of  Labor. — Of  all  commodities  labor  is 
the  most  immobile ;  this  fact  adds  to  its  poor  bargaining 
position.    The  higher  the  grade  of  labor,  the  easier  it  is 
for  the  laborer  to  move,  for  he  has  the  reserve  power 
produced  by  greater  intelligence  and  higher  wages.    The 
man  with  a  small  income  is  ordinarily  unable  to  move, 
even  if  he  knows  that  there  is  work  to  be  had  in  another 
place. 

(5)  Unhealthful  and  Dangerous  Occupations. — In  1917, 
10,087  persons  were  killed  and  194,805  persons  injured  by 
the  railroads  of  the  United  States ;  over  four-fifths  of  these 
people  were  employees  of  the  railroads.    While  railroad- 
ing can  never  be  made  absolutely  safe,  it  kills  and  injures 


Poverty  435 

far  too  many.  The  same  is  true  of  mining.  Many  occu- 
pations are  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  workers;  the 
making  of  matches  was  especially  so  till  the  use  of 
phosphorus  was  forbidden.  Glass  plants,  lead  industries, 
steel  mills,  and  many  kinds  of  factories  offer  hazards  to 
life.  Others  which  are  not  positively  dangerous  are  fre- 
quently unhealthful  occupations;  among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  cigar  factories,  cotton  mills,  and  telephone 
exchanges.  More  and  more  modern  legislation  is  com- 
pelling the  employers  to  protect  their  employees  from 
dangerous  machinery;  the  laundries  to  put  guards  upon 
the  mangles  so  that  the  fingers  of  the  operators  will  not 
be  caught  and  crushed;  and  factory  owners  to  cover  up 
belts  and  place  guards  around  dangerous  machinery. 
Railroads  are  required  to  use  air  brakes  and  coupling 
devices  that  do  not  menace  the  fingers  of  the  brakemen. 

Unnecessary  risks  are  being  eliminated  more  and  more 
by  the  making  and  enforcing  of  such  laws.  Disasters 
like  the  Triangle  Shirt  Company  fire  in  New  York,  the 
Eastland  disaster  in  Chicago  Eiver,  the  Iroquois  Theatre 
fire,  and  the  burning  of  the  General  Slocum,  in  which 
hundreds  of  children  were  either  burned  or  drowned,  have 
forcibly  brought  the  need  of  safety  provisions  and  the 
enforcement  of  regulations  before  the  public,  so  that  after 
every  great  disaster  there  is  a  demand  for  legislation  to 
prevent  any  similar  disasters  in  the  future.  When  the 
attention  of  the  public  is  called  to  such  dangers,  public 
sentiment  is  generally  created  to  compel  the  proper  legis- 
lation. As  industry  speeds  up,  dangers  increase,  but  the 
increase  in  watchfulness  probably  keeps  pace  with  it. 
Accidents  cannot  be  prevented  entirely,  but  can  be  held  to 
a  minimum  by  proper  watchfulness. 

5.  Changes  in  Industry. — (1)  New  Machinery. — The 
industrial  revolution  in  England  produced  untold  misery. 
It  threw  thousands  out  of  employment,  reduced  wages, 
and  caused  privation  and  misery  on  every  hand.  The 
invention  of  any  new  machine  or  improved  method  which 
enables  one  person  to  do  the  work  formerly  requiring 
several  throws  men  out  of  employment  and  thus  causes 


436  Poverty 

poverty.  After  a  time  the  industry  readjusts  itself  and 
a  better  condition  results.  The  improved  machine  pro- 
duces more  and  lowers  prices;  -fhe  lower  price  increases 
demand  for  the  commodity;  greater  consumption  in- 
creases the  demand  for  labor.  But  the  temporary  read- 
justment causes  misery. 

(2)  New  Styles. — Varying  styles  bring  about  changes  in 
trade;  narrow  skirts  caused  a  smaller  demand  for  cloth 
than  usual  and  compelled  the  quick  return  to  wider  skirts 
in  order  that  the  manufacturers  might  not  lose  money. 
The  difficulty  here  was  that  many  women,  instead  of  buy- 
ing new  skirts,  merely  cut  down  their  old  ones.     The 
decline  in  popularity  of  the  bicycle  caused  that  industry 
to  go  to  the  wall.    Later  the  automobile  filled  this  gap, 
but  as  a  result  of  the  growth  of  the  automobile  business 
the  wagon   industry  suffered.     Even  reforms   sometimes 
disturb  conditions;  prohibition,  for  example,  decreased 
the  demand  for  bottles   and  barrels  and   caused  some 
unemployment  until  industry  readjusted  itself.    This  was 
possibly  more  noticeable  in  local  option  days  when  a 
town  went  dry,  than  when  the  whole  nation  adopted 
prohibition,    for    in   the   former   instance   there    was    an 
uncertainty  as  to  the  future.     The  adoption  of  national 
prohibition  came  at  a  very  fortunate  time  when  the  extra 
demand  for  labor  quickly  absorbed  the  workers  let  out 
of  the  liquor  industries,  and  there  was  very  little  unem- 
ployment. 

(3)  Changes  in  the  Value  of  Money. — When  prices  fall 
and  money  becomes  more  valuable,  it  causes  the  debtor 
class  to  suffer.    On  the  other  hand  a  sudden  rise  in  prices 
makes  life  harder  on  the  working  man,  for  wages  are 
always  slower  to  rise  than  the  prices  of  commodities,  and 
while  the  laborer  is  compelled  to  pay  more  for  food, 
clothing,  rent,  and  common  necessities,  his  pay  envelope 
for  a  long  time  is  no  fatter. 

(4)  Changes  in  Tariff  Schedules. — Putting  tariff  on  a 
commodity    immediately    raises    its    price,    whether   the 
article  is  imported  or  not,  for  prices  are  based  more  upon 
the  ability  to  command  than  upon  the  cost  of  production. 


Poverty  437 

Taking  tariff  from  an  article  often  forces  industries  out  of 
business,  thus  causing  unemployment  and  suffering.  The 
building  up  of  the  sugar  industry  in  the  United  States 
is  a  good  example  of  an  industry  fostered  by  a  protective 
tariff.  When  the  tariff  on  sugar  was  removed,  this  in- 
dustry was  threatened  with  ruin. 

(5)  Any  Great  Disturbance  in  Industry. — Wages  are' 
affected  by  any  disturbance,  within  or  without  Such  a 
disturbance  was  caused  in  the  United  States  in  1914  by 
the  war.  Even  though  we  profited  by  it  financially  be- 
cause it  furnished  us  a  new  market,  it  caused  distress 
until  we  could  readjust  our  industry  to  new  conditions. 
After  the  abnormal  conditions  produced  by  the  war  were 
over,  the  readjustment  to  normal  times  caused  a  similar 
depression,  only  this  time  it  was  more  serious  because  it 
was  a  contraction  instead  of  an  expansion.  Any  read- 
justment in  industry  brings  hardship  to  some  people. 

6.  Defects  in  Educational  System. — Illiterate  and  unedu- 
cated persons  are  at  a  disadvantage  in  life's  struggle. 
An  educational  system  which  does  not  reach  all  is  at 
fault;  also  an  educational  system  which  does  not  train 
for  life  is  a  cause  of  dependence.    Lack  of  adequate  in- 
dustrial training  is  a  noticeable  defect  in  our  present 
educational  system.    The  teaching  of  manual  training  is 
a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  it  should  be  supple- 
mented.    Free  public  instruction  should  extend  to  all 
kinds  of  professional  and  industrial  training,  as  well  as 
cultural  training.    The  Gary  system,  combining  all  forms 
of  education,  is  one  method  of  dealing  with  this  problem. 
Poor  education  is  one  cause  of  poverty  with  which  we 
can  easily  deal;  it  is  one  with  which  the  American  people 
are  grappling  now.     School  medical  inspection  and  school 
lunches  are  among  the  recent  methods  of  attacking  the 
problem. 

7.  Defective   Courts   and  Punitive  Machinery. — If  the 
courts  are  corrupt  or  inefficient,  laws  are  not  obeyed. 
If  the  punitive  machinery  is  defective   and  court  sen- 
tences are  not  carried  out,  laws  are  disregarded.     This 
means  that  preventive  legislation  will  not  be  enforced, 


438  Poverty 

that  the  strong  will  prey  upon  the  weak,  and  that  misery 
and  distress  will  be  increased.  There  has  not  been  much  « 
question  of  the  integrity  of  the  American  courts,  although  • 
such  cannot  be  said  of  the  legal  machinery  of  many  coun- 
tries, especially  China  and  Turkey.  There  has,  however, 
been  great  complaint  of  the  inefficiency  of  our  courts. 
Decisions  are  often  not  handed  down  till  all  interested 
in  the  case  are  dead  and  buried  and  the  whole  matter 
lost  sight  of  by  everyone  except  the  lawyers.  Appeal 
can  be  taken  so  easily  that  cases  are  often  decided  in 
favor  of  those  who  have  the  deepest  pocket-books.  The 
poor  man  in  the  lower  court  often  receives  only  the 
merest  pretense  of  justice,  cases  involving  the  whole 
future  of  men  receiving  from  ten  to  thirty  seconds'  time; 
and  in  some  cases  the  defendant,  especially  if  he  is  an 
immigrant,  being  given  no  chance  at  defense.  This  causes 
a  disrespect  for  law  and  a  hatred  of  society.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  public  defender  is  a  great  reform,  espe- 
cially in  compelling  employers  to  pay  workers,  and  in 
forcing  those  indebted  to  poor  persons  to  settle,  this  being 
accomplished  in  most  cases  by  a  letter  from  the  public 
defender. 

8.  Defective   Sanitation. — Poor   sanitation,   while  men- 
tioned under  government,  is  also  due  to  other  reasons 
than  defective  government.    It  may  be  the  result  of  ignor- 
ance, neglect,  or  poor  location.     It  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  causes  of  sickness,  and  so  is  a  great  producer  of 
poverty. 

9.  Unfavorable  Surroundings. — Living  near  a  degenerate 
neighborhood  or  where  one  does  not  come  into  contact 
with  real  industry  and  enterprise  is  an  indirect  cause  of 
poverty,  for  no  real  enthusiasm  is  engendered  and  one 
becomes  discouraged,  feeling  that  life  is  of  no  use.    This 
is  especially  true  if  one  lives  among  thieves  and  grafters, 
for  then  one  is  apt  to  feel  that  it  is  useless  to  work  or 
save ;  such  an  environment  is  especially  destructive  in  its 
influence  upon  children. 

10.  Social  Institutions,  Such  as  Treating. — The  habit  of 
drinking  was  formerly  an  excellent  illustration  of  the 


Poverty 

evils  of  treating.  A  person  would  go  into  a  saloon  to 
get  a  glass  of  beer,  but  meeting  friends  while  there,  he 
would  drink  six  or  eight  glasses  and  s^ead,  instead  of 
five  cents,  as  he  intended,  possibly  fifty  cents. 

11.  Immigration. — By   increasing   the   supply   of  labor 
disproportionately  to  the  demand  for  commodities,  immi- 
gration upsets  the  balance  between  supply  and  demand 
for  labor,  and  so  lowers  wages — or  keeps  them  from  ris- 
ing— and  throws  many  out  of  employment.    This  has  been 
a  cause  of  poverty  in  the  United  States  in  the  past,  and 
will  be  again  in  the  future  if  the  tide  of  immigration 
again  sets  in.     This  cause  was  made  manifest  by  the 
immediate  jump  in  wages  when  immigration  stopped  and 
emigration  began  during  the  Great  War. 

12.  Accidents,   Other   Than   Those  Due   to   Dangerous    ; 
Occupations. — Accidents,  whether  in  one's  work  or  out- 
side, decrease  the  earnings,  increase  expenses,  and  hence 
often  throw  below  the  poverty  line  families  which  other- 
wise would  be  able  to  stay  above.    The  loss  of  the  bread- 
winner may  break  up  the  family.     This  problem  is  met 
in  European  countries,  like  Germany  and  England,  by 
sickness  and  accident  insurance  which  is  compulsory  and 
which  is  generally  paid  partly  by  the  employer,  partly 
by  the  employee,  and  partly  by  the  state.     This  is  one 
instance  where  the  United  States  lags  behind  Europe  in 
social  development. 

13.  Unwise    Giving   and   Indiscriminate    Charity. — The 
American  habit  of  indiscriminate  giving  is  an  unmixed 
evil.     Especially  harmful  has  been  a  large  part  of  the 
charity  of  the  churches.     To  them  giving  per  se  has  been 
the  chief  thing  and,  being  ignorant  of  how  to  give,  they 
have  in  all  probability  caused  more  poverty  than  they 
have  prevented.     Unwise  systems  of  relief  increase  pov- 
erty.   Such  was  the  old  English  method  of  supplementing 
the  wages,  for  this  method  of  making  up  the  difference 
between  the  wage  received  and  a  living  wage  puts  a 
premium  upon  low  wages.     Unwise  giving  removes  the 
incentive  to  work  and  kills  the  spirit  of  independence. 
Giving  to  a  beggar  simply  to  get  rid  of  him  or  because 


440  Poverty 

his  condition  touches  a  sympathetic  chord  is  probably 
the  worst  thing  one  could  do  for  him.  If  the  beggar  is 
successful,  he  will  choose  begging  as  an  occupation  be- 
cause it  is  more  lucrative  than  working.  Giving  to  a 
family  without  careful  investigation  often  causes  the 
family  to  cease  to  be  independent  and  to  depend  entirely 
upon  charity  in  the  future.  It  has  been  discovered  in 
Chicago  that  once  a  family  receives  help  from  the  city 
it  never  ceases  to  receive  it,  but  remains  on  the  pauper 
list.  If  one  family  succeeds  in  getting  help,  all  its 
neighbors  want  it  too,  even  if  they  have  previously  been 
independent.  Giving  in  general,  except  in  cases  of  dire 
need,  is  more  injurious  than  helpful,  especially  if  aid  is 
given  without  careful  investigation  and  without  requir- 
ing some  form  of  service  in  return.  The  average  person 
is  more  in  need  of  an  opportunity  to  earn  a  living  than 
of  material  relief. 

14.  War,  Famine,  and  Disaster. — The  World  "War  caused 
endless  poverty,  as  well  as  untold  suffering  and  misery. 
Its  aftermath  is  felt  not  only  at  the  present  time,  but  it 
will  be  felt  for  generations  to  come.  While  the  effects 
of  war  have  been  most  severely  felt  in  those  countries 
which  were  overrun  by  the  armies,  especially  by  the 
armies  of  the  central  powers — particularly  Poland,  Serbia, 
Armenia,  Belgium,  and  northern  France — the  war  has 
affected  all  the  nations  engaged  in  the  struggle.  It  took 
away,  killed,  and  crippled  millions  of  bread-winners, 
bringing  in  destruction  and  often  starvation.  Property 
lying  in  the  track  of  the  armies  was  destroyed  and  in- 
dustries were  shattered,  even  thousands  of  miles  away 
from  the  .  actual  fighting,  through  the  destruction  of 
markets.  The  fighting  nations  piled  up  debts  which  will 
mean  heavy  taxes  for  generations  to  come.  While  wars 
are  abnormal  causes,  the  World  War  alone  will  be  a 
source  of  poverty  for  a  generation  at  least. 

Subjective  Causes  of  Poverty. — By  subjective  causes 
of  poverty  we  mean  those  originating  within  the  person. 
These  constitute  only  from  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent 
of  the  causes  of  poverty  and  are  not  so  important  as 


Poverty  441 

those  formerly  considered.  They  are  intermingled  with 
the  objective  causes,  often  being  their  results.  In  fact,  it 
is  seldom  possible  to  separate  them  entirely.  The  following 
are  generally  considered  the  most  important  of  the  subjec- 
tive causes :  ^ , 

1.  Disease,  Sickness,  and  Poor  Health. — In  his  Misery 
and  Its  Causes  Devine  asserts  that  three-fourths  of  all 
persons  coming  before  charitable  organizations  for  aid 
are  in  need  of  medical  attention  in  some  form  or  other, 
or  are  affected  by  sickness  in  some  way.  As  we  have 
seen,  a  good  deal  of  sickness  is  caused  by  dangerous 
occupations  and  insanitary  surroundings,  and  so  is  out- 
side the  control  of  the  individual.  Malnutrition  likewise, 
which  renders  the  body  susceptible  to  disease  and  sick~- 
ness.  This  is  especially  true  of  children.  It  has  been 
noted  that  about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the 
public  schools  of  our  cities  do  not  receive  food  sufficient 
in  quality  or  quantity,  and  as  a  result  are  unable  to  do 
the  required  school  work.  The  same  is  true  in  regard  to 
adult  work,  for  to  be  efficient  one  must  be  in  good  phys- 
ical condition.  Formerly  sickness  was  thought  to  be  a 
plague  or  punishment  sent  by  God.  Now  it  is  looked 
upon  as  a  result  of  maladjustments  and  irrational  living. 
Chronic  diseases  cause  much  poverty  by  increasing  ex- 
pense and  decreasing  income.  Even  common  diseases  like 
measles,  whooping-cough,  and  influenza  cause  much  pov- 
erty not  only  by  increasing  expenses  but  by  throwing 
the  parents  out  of  work  through  quarantine  or  requiring 
their  services  at  home  to  look  after  the  sick  ones.  More- 
over, the  death  rate  from  measles  and  whooping-cough 
is  very  high,  especially  among  children,  often  exceeding 
that  of  dreaded  diseases  like  small-pox;  but  because  of 
their  prevalence  we  do  not  fear  them  and  often  take  no 
pains  to  prevent  their  spreading. 

Corporations  are  realizing  the  economic  loss  brought 
to  themselves  as  well  as  to  their  employees  and  their 
families  through  illness;  so  they  are  hiring  company, 
doctors,  establishing  hospitals,  and,  more  important  still, 
hiring  visiting  nurses,  who  not  only;  nurse  the  sick  but 


442  Poverty 

teach  the  mothers  to  cook  better  and  to  keep  the  home 
in  a  more  sanitary  condition,  thus  increasing  the  efficiency 
of  the  workers.  Dispensaries  and  free  hospitals  are  pro- 
vided by  cities  for  the  same  purpose.  Science  is  slowly; 
conquering  the  various  diseases  by  finding  cures  for  them. 
For  example,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  whooping-cough, 
hook-worm,  tuberculosis,  syphilis,  typhus,  and  yellow 
fever  are  yielding  in  varying  degrees  to  the  attacks  of 
medical  science.  If  these  treatments  are  placed  within 
the  reach  of  the  poor  through  free  hospitals  and  dis- 
pensaries, and  the  spread  of  the  knowledge  of  hygiene 
by  means  of  visiting  nurses  is  carried  on,  the  importance 
of  sickness  as  a  cause  of  poverty  will  be  greatly 
diminished.  It  will  not  only  decrease  poverty  but  in- 
crease efficiency.  In  other  words,  the  policy  of  the  future 
in  regard  to  disease  should  be  to  have  the  very  best 
medical  treatment  within  the  reach  of  all,  and  then  teach 
people  so  to  live  as  to  have  little  need  for  it.  Thus  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  far-reaching  causes  of  poverty 
is  now  being  dealt  with  in  a  correct  manner — that  is,  by 
prevention,  in  addition  to  the  relief  of  present  sickness. 

2.  Shiftlessness  and  Laziness. — From  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent  of  poverty  is  generally  attributed  to  shiftlessness, 
but  if  we  go  deeply  enough  into  the  matter  we  usually 
find  that  shiftlessness  is  a  result  rather  than  a  cause. 
Nevertheless  we  find  people  who  are  too  indolent  to 
replace  broken  window  panes,  too  sluggish  to  harvest 
their  crops  after  they  have  ripened,  and  too  lazy  to  do 
anything  which  is  not  absolutely  required  of  them.  As 
a  result  they  are  continually  in  trouble,  and  as  soon  as 
misfortune  comes  in  are  in  distress.  This  trait  seems  to 
go  in  families,  and  so  we  find  degenerate  and  worthless 
families  which  cost  their  communities  thousands  of 
dollars.  These  are  the  people,  as  a  rule,  who  have  large 
families,  which  of  course  they  are  not  able  to  support. 
Laziness  is  very  often  due  to  undernourishment,  caused  by 
poor  food  and  poor  living  conditions.  Sometimes  sickness 
or  disease  is  a  source  of  this  trouble ;  the  hook-worm,  for 
example,  causes  much  of  the  indolence  of  the  poor  whites 


Poverty  443 

of  the  South  and  robs  them  of  their  vitality.  Malaria  has 
the  same  effect.  Fighting  these  diseases  and  thus  remov- 
ing the  cause  is  the  only  apparent  way  of  eliminating 
this  condition.  As  for  lack  of  energy  and  ambition,  unless 
it  is  caused  by  undervitalization  and  illness,  we  have  no 
solution  except  possibly  the  resort  to  some  kind  of 
stimulus.  In  individual  cases  this  can  be  done  by  means 
of  an  appeal  to  pride  or  by  increasing  the  desires,  as  is 
sometimes  done  with  negroes  by  the  display  of  attractive 
goods  in  shop  windows.  Industrial  concerns  in  the  South 
have  obtained  results  by  establishing  company  stores 
which  display  all  manner  of  finery,  thus  stimulating  a 
desire  to  work. 

3.  Poor  Judgment. — Poor  judgment  is  closely  akin  to 
the  preceding  cause,  only  it  appears  to  be  more  hopeless 
of  remedy.  Some  people  seem  to  have  the  ability  to 
decide  wisely  in  their  undertakings,  to  choose  the  right 
path,  to  buy  the  most  economical  things,  to  decide  upon 
what  is  cheapest  and  best  in  the  long  run,  to  choose  their 
careers  with  the  final  goal  in  sight.  Others  seem  to  have 
just  the  opposite  faculty — if  we  may  be  allowed  to  call  it 
that ;  they  are  always  being  swindled,  always  getting  the 
worst  of  the  bargain,  always  getting  "left, "  and  always 
having  a  tale  of  woe  to  tell.  Some  are  always  having 
bad  luck,  continually  meeting  with  accidents,  and  con- 
stantly getting  sick.  They  are  the  ones  who  lose  their 
positions,  pay  the  highest  prices  for  things,  never  know 
how  to  economize,  and  so  are  never  able  to  save.  Some- 
times when  they  do  chance  to  reach  the  brink  of  success, 
they  change  their  mind  and  sacrifice  all  they  have  gained. 
In  short,  the  world  seems  to  be  full  of  fools,  who  become 
the  victims  of  those  endowed  with  higher  intelligence. 
While  this  characteristic  is  generally  inherited,  we 
occasionally  see  in  the  same  family  one  member  who  is 
always  "lucky"  and  another  who  is  always  " unfor- 
tunate." One  has  good  judgment,  and  the  other  poor 
judgment.  Apparently  this  whole  condition  is  without 
remedy,  except  that  judgment  can  be  trained  to  some 
extent  if  the  attempt  is  begun  early  enough  in  life.  Where 


444  Poverty 

results  are  possible  at  all,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  home  and 
home  training. 

4.  Intemperance,  Bad  Habits. — The  use  of  alcohol  has 
been  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  poverty  that  we  have 
had,  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of  all  cases  being  charge- 
able to  it  and  at  least  fifty  per  cent  of  poverty  indirectly 
the  result  of  it.     Yet  this  cause  is  also  attributable  to 
others.     It,  like  unemployment  and  sickness,  is  cumula- 
tive.     Intemperance    increases    poverty,    causes    poorer 
families,  and  necessitates  less  desirable  homes  and  poorer 
food.     These  stimulate  the  desire  for  liquor,  and  the 
further  drinking  of  liquor  increases  poverty.     Poverty 
drives  to  drink  just  as  drink  drives  to  poverty.     Drink 
reduces  efficiency,  which  reduces  income,  which  increases 
poverty,  which  increases  the  temptation  to  drink,  and  so 
it  goes  on,  forming  an  endless  chain.    The  use  of  opium 
and  morphine,  Copenhagen  snuff,  cocaine,  or  other  habit- 
forming  drugs  has  the  same  effect.     For  this  cause  we 
have  tried  in  the  United  States  several  methods  of  pro- 
cedure, such  as  high  licenses,  local  option,  and  the  dispen- 
sary system,  and  at  last  have  come  to  the  true  and  only 
logical   solution,  prohibition.     Other  countries  are  still 
grappling  with  the  problem.    We  have  likewise  forbidden 
the  sale  of  most  of  the  injurious  drugs.    With  this  cause 
removed  it  will  be  much  easier  to  reach  some  of  the  other 
causes,    such    as    low    wages,    unemployment,    sickness, 
immorality,  crime,  neglect,  and  desertion. 

At  the  present  writing  we  are  having  some  difficulty 
in  enforcing  prohibition,  but  this  is  only  natural  and  in 
all  probability  it  will  take  at  least  a  generation  to  do 
away  entirely  with  the  liquor  problem.  As  a  great  over- 
shadowing problem  it  is  a  thing  of  the  past  in  the  United 
States,  and  as  a  great  cause  of  poverty  in  this  country  it 
has  disappeared. 

5.  Immorality. — Immorality  is  closely  bound  up  with 
degeneracy  and  poverty.    In  such  studies  as  those  made 
of    the    Jukes,    Kallikak,    and    Nam    families    we    find 
immorality  and  intemperance  going  hand  in  hand,  hold- 
ing these  families  down  to  a  state  of  poverty  and  degen- 


Poverty  445 

eracy.  Immorality  weakens  vitality  and  efficiency  and  so 
decreases  earnings.  It  again  is  joined  with  other  causes, 
such  as  poor  judgment  and  intemperance,  and  is  a  result 
of  poverty  as  well  as  a  cause.  On  account  of  the  nature 
of  this  source  of  poverty  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  make 
any  really  accurate  estimates  of  its  importance. 

6.  Old  Age. — On  the  face  of  it,  old  age  would  appear 
to  be  a  very  large  cause  of  poverty,  but  upon  examination 
we  find  that  it  is  relatively  unimportant.    When  a  person 
becomes  old,  his  dependants  have,  as  a  rule,  grown  up, 
and  nearly  always  there  are  relatives  to  care  for  the  aged 
ones,  if  they  have  no  means  of  support  of  their  own. 
European    countries,    especially    England,    France,    and 
Germany,  handle  this  problem  by  means  of  old-age  pen- 
sions or  old-age  insurance,  and  it  is  possibly  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time  till  we  do  the  same  in  this  country.     We 
generally  do  care  for  the  aged  poor,  but  in  a  shabby 
manner.    This  cause  can  never  be  removed,  although  its 
ill  effects  can  be  lessened  by  increasing  the  opportunity 
for  saving,  and  by  proper  systems  of  insurance.    It  is  a 
comparatively  easy  problem  to  solve  as  compared  with 
some  others. 

7.  Neglect  and  Desertion  ~by  Husband  and  Relatives. — 
Neglect  and  desertion  contribute  from  five  to  ten  per 
cent  of  the  causes  of  destitution.     They  are  especially 
important  and,  imfortunately,  too  common,  particularly 
when  the  children  are  young.     The  time  when  the  chil- 
dren are  too  small  to  help  is  the  time  when  it  is  the 
hardest  to   support   the  family,   and  too   many  fathers 
become    discouraged   at   their   inability   to    support   the 
family  and  desert  them,  thus  only  complicating  the  prob- 
lem.    It  is  difficult  to  remedy  this  situation.     Attempts 
are  sometimes  made  to  bring  back  the  deserting  fathers 
and  compel  them  to  support  the  family,  and  also  to  com- 
pel parents  to  look  after  their  children.     But  relief  is 
usually  the  only  thing  possible :  helping  the  mother  to 
hold  the  family  together,  or  removing  the  children  from 
the  home,  when  the  home  is  hopeless.     This  condition  is 
also  the  result  of  other  causes,  particularly  intemperance, 


446  Poverty 

immorality,  low  wages,  and  crime.  Not  only  neglect  of 
children  by  their  parents,  but  neglect  of  parents  by  their 
children,  is  quite  common  in  America  because  of  the 
breaking  down  of  patriarchal  authority  and  the  lessen- 
ing of  parental  respect. 

8.  Crime  and  Dishonesty. — Not  only  are  persons  made 
unemployable  by  dishonesty  and  crime,  and  so  unable  to 
provide  for  their  families,  but,  when  a  person  is  sentenced 
to  prison,  his  family  is  often  left  destitute.     Moreover, 
when  the  prisoner  is  discharged  it  is  extremely  difficult 
for  him  to  get  work  again.    The  modern  system  of  parol- 
ing and  finding  work  before  the  parole    is    granted    is 
dealing  with  the  problem  in  a  more  effective  manner.    Also 
public  opinion  is  changing  somewhat  in  regard  to  the 
employment  of  an  ex-convict,  because  belief  in  reforma- 
tion is  gradually  becoming  prevalent.    Then,  too,  we  are 
becoming  more  altruistic  and  are  more  willing  to  give 
a  man  another  chance.    Dishonesty  will  always  stand  in 
the  way  of  success. 

9.  Ignorance,  Other  Than  Lack  of  Education. — Ignor- 
ance is  closely  akin  to  poor  judgment,  yet  has  a  slightly 
different  aspect.    We  find  people  who  simply  do  not  know 
how  to  do  things  and  who  never  are  able  to  learn  to  do 
anything  except  as  they  are  directed.    This  is  not  neces- 
sarily feeble-mindedness,  for  very  often  the  person  has 
normal  intellect  but  simply  does  not  know  how  to  go 
about  things.     The  person  with  poor  judgment  may  be 
very  industrious  and  may  accomplish  things,  and  then 
spoil  it  all  by  poor  decisions.     But  the  inefficient  person 
simply  is  not  able  to  produce  much;  so  he  earns  little. 
Ignorance  on  the  part  of  wives  in  household  matters — 
ignorance  of  methods  of  running  a  house,  planning  a  well- 
balanced  diet,  buying  economically ;  ignorance  of  hygiene, 
of  the  proper  care  of  the  sick,  and  of  the  rearing  of  children 
— these  everyday  home  matters  contribute  not  a  little  to 
poverty.    Improvement  of  the  environment  alleviates  this 
condition  by  bringing  such  people  into  contact  with  effi- 
ciency and  knowledge. 

10.  Large  Families. — Formerly  large  families  were  eon- 


Poverty  447 

sidered  assets,  because  as  soon  as  the  children  outgrew 
the  period  of  infancy  they  were  trained  to  contribute  to 
the  food  supply,  and  as  they  grew  older  they  contributed 
to  the  defense  as  well  as  the  support  of  the  family.  This 
was  true  in  America  down  through  colonial  times  and  in 
later  days  on  the  frontier  as  long  as  free  or  cheap  land 
was  available.  After  we  began  to  settle  down  to  our 
present  manner  of  living,  there  was  no  longer  productive 
work  for  the  children  to  do.  Then  again  our  ideas  in 
regard  to  education  of  children  and  to  child  labor  have 
changed.  Now  instead  of  being  assets,  children  are  lia- 
bilities and  a  source  of  added  expense.  Therefore,  as 
the  size  of  the  family  grows  the  strain  increases  in  pro- 
portion. Whereas  formerly  a  family  might  remain  inde- 
pendent if  there  were  only  two  or  three  children,  it 
frequently  is  unable  to  do  so  when  the  number  increases 
to  eight  or  ten.  This  tendency  has  grown  more  important 
with  the  increased  cost  of  bearing  and  rearing  children. 

Poverty  Cumulative. — As  we  have  seen,  instead  of. 
there  being  one  cause  of  destitution  there  are  many.  We 
find  also  that  these  causes  go  hand  in  hand,  one  prompt- 
ing a  second,  and  it  in  turn  bringing  on  a  third.  Unem- 
ployment leads  to  intemperance,  which  in  turn  may  result 
in  crime.  Sickness  may  reduce  one's  efficiency;  lack  of 
efficiency  may  bring  on  unemployment,  and  so  on.  We 
find  that  laziness  and  shiftlessness  are  frequently  caused 
by  undervitalization,  which  itself  may  be  the  result  of 
sickness  or  poor  food.  Both  of  these  last  may  be  the 
consequence  of  ignorance  or  poor  judgment.  Ignorance 
may  be  due  to  the  person's  being  compelled  to  go  to 
work  too  early  in  life.  This  necessity  may  be  the  result 
of  the  death  of  the  father  through  an  accident  met  with 
in  a  hazardous  occupation.  The  danger  of  the  occupa- 
tion may  be  due  to  the  lack  of  legislation  caused  by  graft 
in  politics  or  to  the  inefficiency  of  the  courts  in  neglect- 
ing to  enforce  the  laws.  Unemployment  may  be  due  to 
a  change  in  industry,  a  change  in  style,  immobility  of 
labor,  or  some  great  upheaval  in  industry.  Not  only  is  it 
absolutely  impossible  to  single  out  any  one  cause  of 


448  Poverty 

poverty,  but  it  is  impossible  to  find  any  one  cause  which 
is  not  connected  with  some  other  cause.  Poverty  is 
cumulative ;  poverty  breeds  poverty.  The  majority  of  the 
poor  are  held  down  in  poverty  as  ruthlessly  and  arbitrarily 
as  if  there  were  some  ironclad  rule  or  law  forbidding 
them  to  emerge  from  their  condition. 

Causes  of  Poverty  are  Also  Results  of  Poverty. — More- 
,  over,  the  conditions  which  we  have  just  discussed  are 
not  only  causes  of  poverty,  but  are  also  results  of  poverty. 
Poverty  makes  one  inefficient;  unemployment  follows. 
Poverty  lowers  one's  bargaining  position;  low  wages  and 
irregularity  of  work  are  consequent.  Poverty  prevents 
the  laborer  from  moving  from  an  idle  district  to 
a  place  where  work  can  be  had.  Poverty  will  not 
allow  one  to  take  time  to  learn  a  new  trade,  when  a 
change  in  style  or  a  new  machine  deprives  him  of  the 
old  trade.  Poverty  prevents  the  child  of  the  very  poor 
from  being  able  to  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  school. 
Lack  of  money  compels  the  poor  man  to  live  in  an  in- 
sanitary and  undesirable  neighborhood.  Poverty  encour- 
ages indiscriminate  living.  Poor  nutrition,  caused  by 
poverty,  makes  one  less  able  to  protect  himself  from 
accident.  Poverty  prevents  the  employment  of  good 
doctors  and  nurses  in  case  of  sickness,  as  well  as  pre- 
cautions necessary  to  avoid  illness.  Poverty  forces  women 
into  prostitution,  and  is  in  turn  a  product  of  immorality. 
Poverty  causes  family  discord  and  desertion,  as  well  as 
crime  and  dishonesty.  Ignorance  is  traceable  to 
poverty,  as  well  as  being  the  cause  of  it.  Even  defective 
government  may  be  the  result  of  power  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  rich;  the  poor  being  too  weak  to  rise  or 
protest,  are  ground  down  under  the  feet  of  the  mighty. 
The  same  is  true  of  defective  courts  and  punitive  machin- 
ery. Laboring  men  receive  far  greater  consideration  in 
our  courts  since  the  unions  have  become  strong;  even 
decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  much  more  favorable 
towards  them.  It  is  only  human  nature  to  despise  the 
weak  and  instead  of  helping  them  to  kick  them  still 
lower  down.  People  may  be  too  poor  either  to  profit 


Poverty 


449 


by  the^educational  system  or  to  demand  such  a  system, 
this  being  the  condition  in  many  countries  even  to-day. 
Bad  climatic  conditions  and  insufficient  natural  resources 
may  be  endured  because  the  people  are  too  poor  to  over- 
come or  move  away  from  them.  In  fact,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  a  cause  of  poverty  which  is  not  also 
a  result  of  it.  This  condition  accounts  for  the  diversity 
of  views  in  regard  to  the  causes  of  poverty  and  remedies 
for  it.  It  is  the  reason  why  it  is  so  exceedingly  difficult 
to  make  an  accurate  and  scientific  study  of  poverty.  The 
more  definite  and  clear  one  becomes,  the  farther  he  strays 
from  the  real  facts  of  the  situation. 

This  complexity  may  be  illustrated  by  the  causes  of 
destitution  of  5000  families  needing  aid  in  New  York 
City:2 

Individuals  Families 

Disability —  Affected  No.       Per  Ct. 

1.  Unemployment    4424  3458         69.16 

2.  Overcrowding 2014         44.68 

3.  Widowhood    1472         29.3 

4.  Chronic   physical   disability 1603  1365         27.3 

5.  Temporary  physical  disability  (ac- 

cident and  child-birth  excepted)     1158  984         19.68 

6.  More    than    3    children    under    14 

years    944         18.88 

7.  Intemperance    1000  833         16.67 

8.  Less  than  5  years  in  New  York  City     814         16.28 

9.  Tuberculosis   675  619         12.38 

10.  Desertion    and   persistent   non-sup- 

port      606         12.12 

11.  Head  of  family  60  years  or  older 599         11.98 

12.  Laziness,  shiftlessness 667  588         11.76 

13.  Child-birth   363  363  7.26 

14.  Eheumatism    359  347          6.94 

15.  Immorality   337  256          5.12 

16.  Mental  disease,  defects,  or  deficien- 

cies           267  248  4.96 

17.  Cruelty,  abuse 229  221          4.42 

18.  Accident    201  198  3.96 

19.  Untruthfulness,  unreliability 210  194  3.88 

20.  Criminal   record    161  151  3.02 

21.  Violent  or  irritable  temper 148  140          2.80 

22.  Waywardness  of  children 160  129          2.58 

23.  Disposition  to  beg 134  117  2.34 

24.  Child  labor  (general,  not  illegal)  85  42  .84 

25.  Gambling   22  22  ,44 

7  Devine,  E.  T.,  Misery  and  Its  Causes.,  p.  204. 


450 


Poverty 


Rowntree3  gives  us  the  following  interesting  diagram 
as  to  the  times  in  life  when  one  is  the  most  apt  to  sink 
below  the  poverty  line.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  are 
three  periods:  first  in  childhood,  when  the  parents  are 
poor;  next  in  the  prime  of  life,  if  there  are  several  chil- 
dren who  thus  increase  the  burden;  and  last  in  old  age, 
when  one  loses  his  earning  power. 


MARRIES 


CHILDREN 

BEGIN   TO 

EARN 


CHILDREN 

MARRY AND 
LEAyE          LABORER 
HOME         PA^T  WORK. 


L 

5      10     15    2Q    25    30    35    40    45    50    55    60    65    70 


Other  Effects  of  Poverty. — We  will  now  cite,  along  with 
the  causes,  some  of  the  effects  of  poverty.  These  might 
be  called  different  phases  of  the  problem,  but  because 
they  are  natural  outgrowths  of  poverty  we  shall  take 
them  up  as  consequences.  Each  of  these  might  be  con- 
sidered as  a  problem  in  itself.  But  they  are  all  lineal 
descendants  of  mother  poverty. 

Child  Labor.— In  1900,  1,750,000  children  were  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States..  Since  then  most  states  have 
passed  child  labor  laws.  Because  so  much  of  child  labor 
is  illegal,  it  is  difficult  to  find  reliable  statistics  of  its 
extent  at  the  present  time.  Estimates  range  between 
1,500,000  and  2,000,000  for  1916-1917.  Much  of  this  is 
due  to  the  lax  enforcement  of  the  child  labor  laws  and 
to  defects  in  these  laws,  especially  in  the  Southern  states. 

Child  labor  has  arisen  largely  since  the  introduction 
of  machinery.  Before  that  time  the  child  worked  at 


1  Bowntree,  B.  S.,  Poverty,  a  Study  of  Town  Life,  p.  13. 


Poverty  451 

home,  where  it  received  the  training  of  the  parents,  who 
took  pride  in  its  work  and  stimulated  a  spirit  of  emula- 
tion in  the  child.  The  child  was  looked  after  and  seldom 
was  worked  beyond  its  endurance.  With  the  introduction 
of  machinery  the  attitude  changed,  and  the  chief  con- 
sideration became,  not  the  child's  welfare,  but  the 
amount  of  product,  because  this  determined  the  profit. 
With  the  coming  of  the  industrial  revolution  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  children  were  in  demand 
for  work  in  the  factories  of  England.  Because  of  the 
existing  sentiment  against  this,  and  because  of  the  stigma 
put  upon  the  ' 'factory  girl,"  it  was  extremely  difficult 
to  get  sufficient  children  to  run  the  factories,  and  the 
people  of  England  did  not  respond  until  'forced  to  it  by 
starvation.  The  mill-owners  filled  their  factories  from 
the  workhouses ;  traffickers  in  children  appeared,  and  chil- 
dren were  sold  almost  like  slaves.  Of  course  no  wages 
were  paid,  and  the  children  were  given  the  poorest  of 
food  and  the  scantiest  of  clothing ;  in  fact,  thousands  were 
practically  starved.  Children  were  so  cheap  that  it  did 
not  pay  to  feed  them  well ;  it  was  cheaper  to  replace  them. 
These  children,  some  as  young  as  eight  and  ten  years  of 
age,  were  worked  to  the  limit  of  their  endurance,  the 
working  day  generally  being  sixteen  hours.  If  the  chil- 
dren gave  out  before  quitting  time,  they  were  revived 
either  with  the  lash  or  by  being  dipped  into  a  tub  of 
water.  Sometimes  they  were  shackled  to  prevent  their 
running  away.  Of  course  the  death  rate  was  high,  but 
the  parishes  were  glad  thus  to  get  rid  of  their  poor 
children. 

By  the  Act  of  1802,  the  hours  were  reduced  to  twelve, 
and  employers  were  required  to  provide  for  the  clothing, 
education,  and  religious  training  of  the  children,  if  such 
education  and  instruction  can  be  imagined  under  such 
conditions.  This  act  did  not  apply  to  children  working 
"under  the  supervision  of  their  parents."  As  a  result, 
the  system  of  pauper  apprenticeship  was  broken  up,  be- 
cause it  was  cheaper  to  hire  children  than  to  comply  with 
the  provisions  of  this  troublesome  law.  Wages  had  al- 


452  Poverty 

ready  been  forced  down  and  adults  were  employe^  only 
on  condition  that  they  bring  a  child  or  two.  In  the 
meantime  the  hand  industries  had  been  driven  out  of 
business  by  the  cheaper  machine-made  goods;  so  the 
workers  had  to  come  to  terms  with  the  owners.  These 
free  children,  sent  by  their  parents,  were  treated  almost 
as  brutally  as  under  the  old  system,  and  were  often 
cruelly  beaten,  but  the  parents  were  not  in  a  position 
to  object. 

So  much  for  the  introduction  of  child  labor.  Our 
present  problem  is  merely  an  offshoot  of  this  condition 
amid  new  surroundings.  Child  labor  is  possible  and 
profitable  largely  because  of  machine  production,  which 
makes  it  economical  to  employ  children,  and  possible  for 
them  to  do  the  work  which  had  been,  or  which  otherwise 
would  be,  done  by  adults. 

There  are  certain  types  of  industries  which  are  the 
largest  employers  of  children.  Probably  the  worst 
offenders  in  the  United  States  are  the  cotton  mills  of 
the  South;  it  is  argued  by  the  owners  that  because  they 
give  work  they  better  the  condition  of  the  people.  But 
the  hours  are  long — the  ten-hour  day  prevailing;  the 
children  are  employed  to  run  high-speed  machinery,  and 
they  are  often  so  small  that  they  are  compelled  to  climb 
upon  the  machines  to  tend  them.  The  age  limit  is  low 
in  all  the  Southern  states,  fourteen  years  being  high 
among  them,  and  many  states  allow  children  even 
younger  to  work.  In  addition,  because  of  poor  enforce- 
ment of  the  laws,  thousands  below  the  legal  limits  are 
employed.  It  is  argued  in  defense  that  the  families  need 
the  money,  which  under  the  present  scale  of  wages  they 
possibly  do. 

The  glass  industry  is  another  offender.  The  factories 
are  located  in  small  towns  near  some  ready  fuel  supply 
such  as  natural  gas.  Because  of  being  located  in  small 
towns  and  because  of  the  ease  in  moving,  conditions  are 
allowed  which  otherwise  might  not  be  tolerated.  The 
owners  threaten  to  move  to  another  town,  a  thing  which 
can  easily  be  done,  as  the  equipment  required  is  not 


Poverty  453 

extensive.  In  order  to  retain  the  factories  the  towns  do 
not  enforce  the  child  labor  laws.  In  these  factories  the 
children  are  employed  to  carry  bottles  to  and  from  the 
ovens,  and  are  kept  constantly  on  the  trot.  Adults  are 
not  quick  enough  to  do  this.  Investigators  have  figured 
that  on  an  average  the  boy  travels  twenty-two  miles  dur- 
ing the  working  day  or  night,  running  to  and  from  the 
oven  with  his  loads  of  bottles.  He  received  for  this  be- 
fore the  war  from  sixty  cents  to  one  dollar  a  day.  The 
work  is  very  injurious,  especially  in  winter  on  the  night 
shift,  for  the  boys  leave  their  hot  work  to  go  out  into 
the  bitter  cold  of  the  early  morning,  and  fall  easy  victims 
to  pneumonia  and  grippe.  The  glare  also  affects  the  eyes, 
and  if  the  boys  work  on  the  night  shift  it  is  extremely 
difficult  for  them  to  sleep  during  the  day;  so  they  get 
insufficient  rest.  Then  the  moral  effect  is  bad,  for  the 
surroundings  are  generally  not  what  they  should  be. 

The  mines,  especially  the  anthracite  coal  mines  of 
Pennsylvania,  are  also  transgressors.  They  employ 
breaker  boys,  whose  work  it  is  to  work  amid  the  dust 
picking  slate  from  the  coal  as  it  slides  by.  The  lungs 
become  filled  with  dust,  the  hands  become  bruised,  and 
the  boy  becomes  bent  with  the  work  and  stunted  for 
life.  He  does  not  get  an  education  but  graduates  instead 
into  the  mines,  where  he  becomes  a  door  boy  or  mule 
driver.  The  cigar  factories  are  likewise  bad,  although 
here  the  work  is  not  so  hard;  here  both  boys  and  girls 
work  in  an  atmosphere  highly  charged  with  nicotine. 
This  bad  air  generally  brings  on  tuberculosis  or  stunts  the 
body  for  life. 

The  canning  industry  employs  much  child  labor.  Con- 
ditions in  the  oyster  and  shrimp  canneries  are  especially 
bad.  Children  often  begin  work  at  four  or  five  years  of 
age  and  work  long  hours,  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen 
hours  a  day.  Because  their  parents  work  with  them  con- 
ditions are  not  so  bad  as  in  some  industries,  the  children 
seldom  being  abused.  But  the  attitude  of  these  parents 
seems  strange  to  us;  the  majority  of  them  are  immigrants; 
they  look  upon  their  children  as  assets,  and  expect  them 


454  Poverty 

to  help  support  the  family,  not  considering  an  education 
necessary  for  them.  The  children  work  for  their  parents, 
so  it  is  difficult  to  reach  them  except  through  the  school 
laws,  for  they  are  not  on  the  list  of  workers.  A  child  of 
seven  was  able  to  make,  before  the  war,  from  ten  to 
twenty-five  cents  a  day;  one  from  eight  to  ten  years  of 
age,  about  fifty  cents  a  day;  and  one  from  twelve  to 
fourteen,  often  as  high  as  one  dollar  a  day.  But  the 
best  of  adults  seldom  made  over  one  dollar,  so  the  work 
offered  no  advancement.  This  work  is  seasonal,  but  at 
the  end  of  the  season  the  families  are  generally  moved 
to  the  berry  fields  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  Because 
most  of  these  canneries  are  located  in  the  South,  where 
school  laws  are  very  lax,  these  children  receive  little  if 
any  education.  Moreover  in  the  berry  season  in  New 
Jersey  schools  are  not  in  session,  for  it  is  then  vacation. 
Some  companies  make  a  farce  of  providing  school,  requir- 
ing the  children  to  work  four  hours,  attend  school  half  a 
day,  then  work  four  hours  more.  It  can  easily  be 
imagined  how  much  education  will  be  acquired. 

In  addition  to  these  and  other  industries  there  are 
home  workers — children  who  work  for  their  parents  in 
the  sweated  industries,  even  tiny  children,  scarcely  more 
than  babies,  helping  their  parents  in  making  beads,  artifi- 
cial flowers  and  feathers,  in  picking  out  bastings,  and  in 
doing  whatever  their  little  fingers  are  able  to  do.  Con- 
ditions are  not  quite  so  bad  as  in  factories,  because  the 
children  are  working  with  their  parents;  yet  most  of 
these  parents  do  not  have  our  own  high  standards.  The 
children  receive  no  wages,  and  usually  are  under  school 
age  or  work  after  school  hours,  and  so  cannot  be  reached 
by  any  child  labor  law. 

Another  phase  of  child  labor  generally  unobserved  is 
found  on  farms,  especially  the  great  truck  farms,  where 
children  are  profitably  employed  to  weed  the  young  plants. 
While  the  work  is  generally  more  healthful  than  in  a 
factory  it  is  often  hard  and  the  hours  are  long.  In  the 
raising  of  sugar  beets  in  Michigan  and  particularly  in 
Colorado,  thousands  of  children  are  employed,  not  only 


Poverty  455 

in  weeding  and  thinning  out  but  in  pulling  the  beets, 
which  is  very  laborious  and  detrimental  to  the  physique 
of  the  growing  child.  The  greatest  injury  to  these  rural 
workers  is  the  loss  of  the  opportunity  to  go  to  school 
as  in  these  regions  the  school  laws  are  not  enforced.  The 
National  Child  Labor  Committee  estimates  that  nearly 
1,500,000  children  between  ten  and  fifteen  years  of  age 
are  gainfully  employed  upon  farms.  The  Children's 
Bureau  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  puts 
this  estimate  at  not  less  than  2,000,000. 

Two  of  the  most  demoralizing  occupations  for  children 
are  the  messenger  service  and  the  selling  of  papers.  Ond- 
third  of  the  boys  sent  to  the  John  Worthy  School  in 
Chicago  are  newsboys,  and  one-third  of  these  are  below 
the  normal  in  physique.  The  work  keeps  the  boys  on 
the  street  for  long  hours.  They  are  under  a  constant 
strain  and  become  old  for  their  years.  They  also  become 
accustomed  to  the  life  of  the  streets  far  too  early  in 
life.  The  occupation  leads  nowhere  and  unfits  them  for 
life.  The  messenger  boy  is  still  worse  off,  for  often  he 
works  in  the  "red  light"  districts.  Here  he  not  only 
comes  into  close  contact  with  vice  and  so  generally  be- 
comes infected  with  the  venereal  diseases,  but  encounters 
great  temptation  to  dishonesty.  Tips  are  larger,  persons 
are  more  careless,  and  it  is  easy  to  keep  the  change  or 
to  overcharge.  The  messenger  trade,  like  that  of  the 
newsboy,  leads  nowhere  and  unfits  for  life.  Formerly 
the  bootblack  belonged  to  the  same  class,  but  the  Greek 
bootblack  stands  have  put  the  native  boys  out  of  busi- 
ness; but  there  is  a  great  deal  of  child  labor  in  this 
business,  for  boys  are  imported  from  Greece  often  at  an 
illegal  age. 

The  moral  effect  of  any  sort  of  child  labor  is  bad,  even 
when  the  work  itself  is  not  hard.  The  labor  is  generally 
unskilled  and  the  association  is  usually  with  coarse, 
uneducated  persons,  where  the  language  heard  is  vulgar, 
profane,  and  obscene.  The  child  never  fully  develops; 
he  becomes  discouraged  and  prematurely  old,  for,  as 
Ruskin  says,  "To  be  a  man  too  soon  is  to  be  a  small 


456  Poverty 

man,"  both  mentally  and  physically.  Vitality  is  used  up 
too  early  and  he  who  enters  industry  too  soon  is,  in  turn, 
too  quickly  thrown  upon  the  scrap  heap.  This  also 
cripples  the  succeeding  generations.  A  good  illustration 
of  the  effect  of  the  system  was  furnished  at  the  time  of 
the  Boer  "War,  when  the  physique  of  the  population  of 
England  was  so  poor  that  she  could  not  fill  her  armies 
sufficiently  to  fight  that  little  nation,  and  had  to  lower 
the  physical  requirements  for  admission  into  the  army. 
Child  labor  takes  work  away  from  parents  and  thus 
demoralizes  the  family  life,  for  instead  of  a  man's  sup- 
porting his  family  he  is  compelled  to  let  his  family  sup- 
port him.  It  keeps  wages  down,  for  the  adult  has  to 
compete  with  the  child.  Labor  unions  oppose  it  for  this 
reason.  Parents  get  accustomed  to  depending  upon  the 
earnings  of  their  children  and  hence  lose  their  parental 
love  and  devotion.  It  is  not  essential  to  industry,  for 
there  are  enough  adults  to  do  the  work.  It  is  unneces- 
sary for  the  family,  for  if  it  were  done  away  with  wages 
would  rise.  It  prevents  improvements  in  machinery,  for 
it  removes  the  incentive  to  invention.  Machines  have 
been  invented  to  do  the  work  performed  by  the  boys  in 
glass  factories,  but  it  is  cheaper  to  hire  boys,  so  the 
machines  are  not  installed.  Other  machines  could  be 
invented  to  do  much  of  the  work  now  performed  by 
children.  It  is  not  necessary  to  the  financial  success  of 
the  industries  in  question,  for  the  ones  employing  chil- 
dren generally  pay  high  dividends,  especially  the  South- 
ern cotton  mills  and  the  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania.  In 
fact  any  industry  could  get  along  without  child  labor. 

But  probably  most  important  of  all  is  the  effect  upon 
the  nation  of  using  up  its  supply  of  labor  too  early  in 
life.  It  is  like  harvesting  crops  before  they  are  ripe, 
cutting  timber  when  it  is  too  small,  or  killing  cattle  when 
they  are  calves,  except  that  the  effect  is  far  more  damag- 
ing. It  is  using  up  future  resources.  It  is  uneconomical 
and  dangerous  to  our  civilization.  As  mentioned  before, 
most  states  have  child  labor  laws,  many  good  ones  and 
well  enforced.  Others,  mostly  Southern  states,  have  poor 


Poverty  457 

ones  or  have  lax  enforcement,  and  these  states  profit  at 
the  expense  of  those  having  efficient  laws. 

What  we  need  is  a  national  child  labor  law.  Several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  get  such  a  law,  but  they 
have  been  declared  unconstitutional,  because  contrary  to 
clauses  in  our  Constitution  which  are  based  upon  the  old 
individualistic  idea  of  society.  We  need  either  a  law 
which  will  avoid  this  difficulty  or  an  amendment  to  our 
Constitution;  otherwise,  states  which  are  careless  or  have 
not  developed  a  high  moral  sense  of  responsibility  will 
continue  to  profit  at  the  expense  of  those  who  have 
developed  a  higher  social  conscience.  Until  we  can  get 
such  a  law  we  need  better  state  laws,  and,  still  more 
important,  strict  enforcement  of  existing  laws  through 
proper  inspection  and  penalties. 

*  Women  in  Industry. — We  shall  not  here  discuss  the 
entry  of  the  unmarried  woman  into  industry,  but  the 
entry  of  the  married  woman,  not  for  the  sake  of  a  career 
or  because  she  prefers  it  to  housework,  but  from  necessity 
— the  necessity  of  supplementing  the  income  of  her 
husband.  The  entrance  of  this  class  of  women  into 
industry  resembles  child  labor  in  many  ways.  It  causes 
the  wife  to  neglect  the  home  and  children.  It  makes 
it  impossible  to  supply  the  family  with  proper  food 
and  attention.  The  children  are  neglected  and  forced 
upon  the  streets.  If  the  wife  tries  to  keep  up  her 
housework  at  the  same  time,  the  strain  upon  her  is  too 
great.  If  she  delegates  it  to  the  children,  she  puts 
burdens  upon  them  too  early  in  life.  Often  she  is  com- 
pelled to  labor  when  she  is  physically  unfitted  for  it, 
especially  just  before  or  after  childbirth.  The  whole 
effect  is  demoralizing  and  injurious  to  the  family.  The 
entry  of  woman  into  industry  under  these  conditions 
tends  also  to  keep  wages  down.  It  does  much  to  com- 
plicate our  next  problem,  child  neglect.  It  increases  the 
supply  of  labor,  hence  causes  unemployment.  In  this 
way  it  is  closely  interwoven  with  other  problems. 

Child  Neglect. — The  children  of  the  poor  are  not  only 
underfed  but  also  improperly  fed.  Often  the  food  is 


sufficient  in  quantity  but  not  in  quality,  lacking  nourish- 
ing elements;  in  that  case  the  children  suffer  from  slow 
starvation.  They  are  often  sent  to  school  without  proper 
breakfasts.  For  lunch  they  have  a  few  pennies  which  go 
often  for  ice  cream,  candy,  or  pickles.  Spargo  in  his 
Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children  estimated,  a  few  years  ago, 
that  2,000,000  children  of  school  age  were  victims  of 
poverty,  were  denied  the  common  necessities  of  life,  and 
were  turned  adrift  with  feeble  minds  and  bodies.  He 
raises  the  question  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  feed 
these  waifs  than  to  try  to  educate  them;  also  whether 
it  is  not  brutal  to  try  to  educate  them  when  they  are 
starving. 

The  cause  of  dullness  in  school  is  largely  poor  nutrition. 
Insufficient  blood  goes  to  the  brain.  Insufficient  clothing 
also  means  that  too  much  of  the  vitality  of  the  body 
goes  to  fight  off  the  cold.  Children  become  discouraged 
and  leave  school,  take  to  the  street,  and  so  easily  drift 
into  crime.  Often  they  are  taken  out  of  school,  on  the 
ground  that  if  they  cannot  learn  they  might  as  well 
help  pay  the  rent.  Child  labor  brings  still  further  injury 
physically,  mentally,  and  morally.  If  the  child  cannot 
stand  the  strain  of  school,  it  cannot  stand  the  strain  of 
factory  life,  and  soon  goes  to  help  swell  the  class  of 
degenerates. 

The  criminal  population,  as  we  shall  see  in  another 
chapter,  is  drawn  largely  from  this  class  of  degenerate 
children.  Reformatory  children  are  nearly  always  smaller 
and  lighter  in  weight  upon  admission  than  normal  chil- 
dren of  the  same  age.  Poor  nutrition  lies  at  the  root  of 
much  of  crime.  So  great  has  been  this  problem  in  the 
slum  districts  that  the  public  schools  of  most  of  our  large 
cities  have  had  to  follow  the  practice  of  many  European 
cities  in  furnishing  free  lunches  or  lunches  at  a  low  cost 
to  the  children.  Lunches  that  are  nourishing  and 
palatable  are  furnished  for  a  few  cents.  The  writer  was 
struck  with  the  wonderful  popularity  of  these  school 
lunch  rooms  that  he  once  visited  in  Chicago.  They 
are  generally  conducted  on  the  cafeteria  plan,  but  with 


Poverty  459 

some  provision  for  those  who  cannot  afford  even  them. 
But  when  they  were  first  introduced,  it  was  found  that 
the  digestive  system  of  many  children  was  so  deranged 
that  it  could  not  stand  good  food;  being  too  weak  to 
digest  it,  the  stomach  would  reject  it.  In  one  place  the 
soup  was  found  to  be  too  good  and  had  to  be  weakened. 
Children  were  found  who  could  not  eat  chicken  or  meats 
of  any  kind,  who  could  not  even  drink  milk. 

This  is  one  illustration  of  where  the  school  has  to 
step  in  and  perform  the  function  of  the  home.  Great 
improvements  in  school  work  always  follow  the  installa- 
tion of  these  cheap  lunchrooms.  In  Switzerland  the  poor 
children  are  fed,  clothed,  and  shod  at  public  expense. 
Day  homes  are  provided  for  very  young  children.  Chil- 
dren are  examined  and  the  sick  ones,  instead  of  being 
sent  home,  where  they  are  not  apt  to  receive  proper  care, 
are  taken  to  sanitariums.  In  Brussels  and  in  Norway, 
if  a  child  looks  puny  it  is  fed  a  special  diet,  and  the 
school  systems  see  to  it  that  every  child  receives  a  square 
meal.  In  this  respect  America  is  behind  Europe,  but  is 
rapidly  following  her  lead.  This  work  must  be  extended 
if  we  expect  to  stop  the  recruiting  of  a  class  of  physical, 
mental,  and  moral  degenerates.  We  are  putting  in  day 
nurseries,  where  working  mothers  may  leave  their  chil- 
dren under  proper  care.  We  are  expanding  the  work 
of  visiting  nurses  who  teach  mothers  how  to  cook  and 
how  to  care  for  their  homes  and  children.  We  are  also 
experimenting  with  mothers'  pensions,  which  permits  the 
parent  to  stay  at  home  to  care  for  the  children,  the  state 
thus  paying  for  this  important  service.  We  are  also 
working  towards  minimum  wage  scales,  in  order  to  enable 
the  parents  to  provide  for  the  children.  In  other  words, 
we  are  not  only  trying  to  relieve  the  distress,  but  we 
are  attempting  to  dig  up  the  roots  of  the  evil. 

Under  this  heading  are  to  be  considered  the  physical 
defects  of  children,  such  as  poor  eyesight,  adenoids, 
enlarged  tonsils,  and  other  ailments  which  can  easily  be 
remedied  if  treated  in  time.  Many  children  are  dull  be- 
cause of  defective  vision,  poor  hearing,  or  some  such 


460  Poverty 

physical  weakness  and  if  these  faults  are  remedied  the 
dullness  often  disappears.  It  is  stated  that  Theodore 
Eoosevelt  was  considered  dull  until  it  was  found  that  he 
was  nearsighted.  With  the  fitting  of  glasses  the  dullness 
quickly  disappeared.  This  type  of  defect  is  not  always 
confined  to  the  children  of  the  very  poor,  for  well-to-do 
people  often  neglect  to  care  for  their  children  in  this 
respect,  thinking  that  the  child  is  "all  right,"  or  putting 
off  the  matter  till  the  child  is  injured  for  life.  Many 
of  our  schools  have  medical  inspection  of  the  children 
at  stated  intervals.  This  too  often  is  done  in  a  hasty 
manner,  a  mere  glance  being  given  each  child.  Then  if 
a  defect,  such  as  poor  vision,  is  found,  a  note  is  sent  to 
the  parents  asking  them  to  correct  the  trouble.  These 
warnings  are  frequently  neglected ;  in  fact  less  than  half 
the  time  are  they  heeded,  the  parents  being  too  poor,  too 
ignorant,  too  shiftless,  or  too  selfish  to  do  what  is  advised. 
There  ought  to  be  better  provision  for  such  cases,  for 
the  country  cannot  afford  to  have  its  children  thus 
neglected.  This  is  one  line  of  work  that  needs  to  be 
greatly  extended. 

It  seems  sad,  but  it  is  true  that  poverty  always  falls 
the  heaviest  upon  those  who  have  no  control  over  it, 
especially  the  child,  who  has  to  go  without  proper  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter,  and  who  has  to  endure  suffering 
and  is  often  killed,  or  maimed  for  life.  The  death  rate 
for  the  poorest  class  of  laborers  is  three  and  one-half 
times  as  great  as  among  the  well-to-do.  The  infantile 
death  rate  is  much  greater  because  of  the  lower  vitality, 
making  it  more  difficult  to  throw  off  disease.  Poverty 
always  falls  heavier  upon  woman  than  man,  and  heavier 
upon  the  child  than  the  adult. 

Degeneracy. — We  find  not  only  degenerate  families,  but 
also  degenerate  communities  and  nations.  The  factors 
entering  into  this  problem  are  many,  but  one  of  the 
principal  ones  is  poverty.  Poverty  holds  down,  destroys, 
or  prevents  the  development  of  ambition.  Poverty,  as 
we  have  seen,  brings  with  it  a  myriad  of  other  evils  like 
crime,  vice,  ignorance,  immorality,  disease,  and  general 


Poverty  461 

inefficiency.  Degeneracy  is  not  all  due  to  poverty:  bio- 
logical factors  have  to  be  considered,  and  geographic 
features  also  play  a  part.  But  poverty  is  the  cause  of 
much  degeneracy.  The  writer  well  remembers  when  on 
a  trip  through  the  mountains  of  southeastern  Kentucky 
being  greatly  surprised  at  the  prosperity  of  the  country 
and  the  rapid  progress  which  that  section  was  making. 
The  cause  back  of  it  all,  he  found  was  the  discovery  of 
coal,  which  was  bringing  wealth  into  the  country.  "Wealth 
brings  opportunity  for  an  education,  time  for  study, 
means  of  travel,  and  a  chance  to  enjoy  the  comforts  of 
life.  The  inclination  may  have  been  there  before,  but 
poverty  prevented.  If  we  examine  the  location  and  eco- 
nomic status  of  the  communities  from  which  the  degen- 
erate families,  such  as  the  Jukes,  Kallikak,  Nam,  and 
Hill  Folks  have  come,  we  shall  find  that  poverty  has 
prevailed.  If  we  take  up  the  degenerate  and  backward 
sections  of  any  country,  we  find  the  same  condition.  This 
condition  is  partly  the  cause  of  poverty,  but  it  is  equally 
the  result  of  it.  The  sand  hills  of  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia,  the  Ozarks  of  Arkansas,  the  mountains  of  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee — all  these  have  been  unproductive 
and  inaccessible  regions,  which  have  been  left  to  their 
own  poverty.  If  we  examine  the  backward  countries 
of  the  world,  we  find  the  same  thing  true. 

READING  REFERENCES 

GILLIN,  JOHN  L.,  Poverty  and  Dependency,  Parts  I  and  II. 
PARMELEE,  MAURICE,  Poverty  and  Social  Progress,  Parts  I  and  II. 
DEVINE,  E.  T.,  Misery  and  Its  Causes. 
HUNTER,  ROBERT,  Poverty. 
LONDON,  JACK,  People  of  the  Abyss. 
Rns,  JACOB,  How  the  Other  Half  Lives. 
Rns,  JACOB,  Battle  With  the  Slum. 
Rns,  JACOB,  Children  of  the  Poor. 
SPARGO,  JOHN,  The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children. 
NATIONAL  INDUSTRIAL  CONFERENCE  BOARD  (10  E.  39th  St.,  N.  Y.), 
Report  of  Jan.  21,  1922,  on   The  Unemployment  Problem. 
NEARING,  SCOTT,  Social  Adjustment. 
NEARING,  SCOTT,  Poverty  and  Riches, 


462  Poverty 

NEARING,  SCOTT,  Social  Religion. 

NEARING,  SCOTT,  Wages  in  the  United  States. 

RYAN,  J.  A.,  A  Living  Wage. 

KING,  W.  I.,  Wealth  and  Income  of  the  People  of  the  United 

States. 

ROWNTREE,  B.  S.,  Poverty;  A  Study  of  Town  Life. 
FAIRCHILD,  H.  P.,  Applied  Sociology,  Part  II. 
WARNER,  AMOS  G.,  American  Charities,  Part  I. 
BOOTH,  CHARLES,  Life  and  Labors  of  the  People  of  London. 
DEFOREST,  R.  W.  AND  VEILLER,  L.,  The  Tenement  House  Problem, 

2  Vols. 
SMITH,  R.  H.,  Justice  and  the  Poor,  Carnegie  Foundation  for 

the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  Bulletin  No.  13. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
TREATMENT  OF  POVERTY 

Historical  Treatment  of  Poverty. — One  of  the  earliest 
methods  of  treating  poverty  was  slavery.  If  a  person  was 
unable  to  make  a  living  or  to  manage  his  own  affairs  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  both  ends  meet,  he  was  sold  into 
slavery,  so  as  to  allow  someone  else  to  provide  for  him 
who  was  able  to  bring  this  about.  If  a  group  or  nation 
was  unable  to  stand  on  its  own  feet,  it  was  likewise  sub- 
jugated by  a  stronger  one.  This  solution  of  the  problem 
was  never  consciously  worked  out  in  accordance  with 
any  such  theory,  yet  it  was  widely  adopted  in  ancient 
times.  Among  some  people  the  aged  and  crippled  were 
killed,  and  often  in  a  spirit  of  altruism. 

Charity,  or  the  giving  of  alms,  has  been  from  time 
immemorial  the  most  popular  method  of  dealing  with 
poverty.  It  has  taken  the  forms  of  public  charity,  or  the 
help  given  through  institutions  or  agencies  under  the 
control  of  the  state  or  any  of  its  branches;  and  private 
charity,  or  the  help  given  by  individuals  or  groups  of 
individuals  independent  of  the  authority  of  the  state. 

We  find  the  idea  of  charity  highly  developed  in  the 
philosophies  of  India,  China,  and  Judea.  The  religions 
of  these  countries,  especially  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism, 
advocated  charity  as  one  of  the  roads  to  salvation.  In 
India  the  Brahman  holy  men  depend  upon  alms  for  a 
living,  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  Brahman  religious  code  to 
give  them.  So  much  has  this  been  stressed  that  the  so- 
called  "holy  men"  are  a  nuisance  in  India  and  thousands 
of  impostors  find  thereby  an  easy  way  to  make  a  living. 
Charity  was  developed  and  organized  by  the  early 
Hebrew  church.  Christianity  took  it  up  and  carried  it 
on  to  a  still  greater  extent  than  Judaism.  With  savages 
we  do  not  as  a  rule  find  charity  very  highly  developed, 

463 


464  Treatment  of  Poverty 

for  among  them  the  weak  are  despised  and  helped  only 
because  of  the  personal  sympathy  of  relatives  or  friends ; 
but  among  the  really  advanced  peoples,  especially  those 
having  highly  organized  religions,  such  as  the  Aztecs  of 
Mexico  and  the  Incas  of  Peru,  we  find  systems  of  relief 
of  the  poor  quite  highly  developed. 

As  we  study  the  people  who  are  higher  in  the  scale 
of  civilization,  we  find  an  increase  in  the  spirit  of 
altruism;  and  one  of  the  forms  which  this  has  taken  is 
charity.  Although  we  find  exceptions,  this  did  not  as  a 
rule  take  the  form  of  public  charity,  or  aid  by  the  state, 
but  private  charity,  which  was  left  largely  to  the  church, 
especially  the  Christian  church.  In  Athens  a  poor  tax 
was  levied,  but  Athens  was  an  exceptionally  highly 
developed  community.  Rome  in  the  period  of  the  Empire 
spent  vast  sums,  amounting  to  millions  of  dollars  each 
year,  in  feeding  the  poor.  At  the  time  of  Augustus, 
320,000  persons  received  grants  of  corn  or  other  aid  from 
the  state,  and  it  is  estimated  that  Nero  gave  away  during 
his  reign  nearly  $100,000,000  from  the  public  treasury  to 
the  people  for  food.  The  Roman  populace  was  not  only 
fed  at  public  expense  but  even  amused.  All  this  was 
done,  however,  not  from  altruistic  motives.  In  Rome  the 
people  were  divided  into  patricians,  or  the  wealthy,  and 
plebeians,  or  the  poor.  At  first  the  patricians  ruled  and 
took  all  the  spoils  of  their  conquests,  but  later  the 
plebeians  gained  a  voice  in  the  government  and  came  to 
be  feared.  In  order  to  keep  them  from  revolting  and 
overthrowing  the  patricians,  the  rulers  began  to  help 
feed  them,  at  first  by  keeping  down  prices,  then  by  giving 
corn,  and  later  by  adding  oil  and  wine. 

The  problem  of  keeping  the  people  quiet  and  contented 
finally  became  so  great  that  the  circuses  and  gladiatorial 
contests  were  instituted  to  amuse  them.  The  politicians 
vied  with  each  other  in  lavish  gifts  in  order  to  gain  the 
votes  of  the  people,  both  before  election  and  after  being 
put  into  office.  This  giving,  which  eventually  came  out 
of  the  public  coffers,  probably  exceeded  the  amounts  con- 
tributed privately .  to  the  support  of  the  people.  The 


Treatment  of  Poverty  465 

politicians  not  only  reimbursed  themselves  after  getting 
office,  but  also  took  the  opportunity  of  filling  their 
pockets,  till  it  came  to  be  the  custom  for  a  consul,  upon 
being  given  his  province  after  retirement,  to  consider 
this  his  opportunity  to  recoup  himself.  In  the  one  year 
that  he  held  the  province  he  had  to  make  three  fortunes : 
first,  one  to  pay  off  the  debts  he  had  incurred  getting 
into  office;  second,  one  to  pay  off  all  lawsuits  after  he 
got  out;  and  third,  enough  to  keep  himself  in  luxury 
the  rest  of  his  life.  So  there  was  very  little  charity  or 
altruism  in  the  giving  of  the  Roman  state. 

The  Catholic  Church,  as  it  gained  strength,  assumed 
more  and  more  the  responsibility  of  caring  for  the  poor 
and  afflicted.  Orders  of  nuns  and  monks  were  instituted 
with  this  motive  in  view.  The  church  did  heroic  work 
in  this  field.  But  the  whole  attitude  was  to  relieve  dis- 
tress, not  to  prevent  poverty.  It  sought  to  relieve  suffer- 
ing without  attempting  to  remove  its  causes,  perhaps 
seldom  thinking  that  the  latter  could  be  done.  The  church 
gave  alms,  cared  for  children,  relieved  sickness,  and  tried 
in  general  to  alleviate  distress.  But  instead  of  removing 
poverty,  the  church  probably  increased  it.  The  conditions 
causing  poverty  continued  to  operate,  and  the  very  fact 
that  they  could  get  alms  was  a  great  inducement  for  the 
people  not  to  struggle  against  adversity  but  to  accept 
aid  from  others.  This  work  of  the  church  in  dealing  with 
poverty  continued  until  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
when  the  Catholic  Church  began  to  break  up  into  sects, 
and  when  matters  of  theology  began  to  gain  the  atten- 
tion of  the  church  rather  than  relief  of  suffering.  Then 
it  had  to  surrender  a  great  part  of  this  work  to  the  state. 
The  church  has  always  regarded  charity  as  one  of  its 
fundamental  principles,  but  its  importance  has  dwindled. 
In  some  ways  this  is  to  be  regretted;  yet  on  the  other 
hand,  the  church  never  handled  the  matter  competently, 
probably  causing  more  poverty  by  indiscriminate  giving 
than  it  relieved.  The  theory  of  the  church  was  that  the 
more  one  gave,  the  greater  would  be  the  reward  in 
heaven. 


466  Treatment  of  Poverty 

Charity  Taken  Over  by  the  State. — At  first  pauperism 
was  treated  as  a  crime.  Before  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion the  laws  in  regard  to  poverty  were  revolting  in  their 
severity,  flogging  and  branding  being  the  punishment  for 
begging;  while  the  indigent  and  suffering  were  left 
entirely  to  the  care  of  the  church.  But  with  the  coming 
of  the  Reformation,  when  the  church  split  up  into  sects, 
it  was  impossible  for  this  function  to  be  performed  longer 
by  the  church,  and  to  supply  this  need  poor  laws  were 
introduced  throughout  Europe  during  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Thus  arose  a  public  recognition  of  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  community  to  look  after  its  poor,  rather  than 
to  leave  them  to  the  church.  This  work  was  generally 
entrusted  to  the  town  councils. 

At  Hamburg,  as  early  as  1529,  directions  were  published 
for  the  guidance  of  the  overseers:  "to  visit  the  houses 
in  their  respective  districts  once  every  month,  in  order 
to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  circumstances  of 
the  poor ;  to  provide  employment  for  those  who  were  able 
to  work,  to  lend  money  without  interest  to  those  who 
were  honest,  and  could  with  little  assistance  maintain  an 
independent  position,  and  lastly  to  grant  permanent  re- 
lief to  the  disabled  and  sick."1 

In  1531  Emperor  Charles  V  directed  that  "collections 
be  made  throughout  the  Netherlands  for  the  settled  poor 
— the  idlers  and  rogues  to  be  set  to  work;  poor  women 
and  children  provided  for;  the  latter  put  to  school,  and 
afterwards  placed  out  in  service  and  trade. ' ' 2 

The  law  of  the  German  Empire  of  1577  ordered  parishes 
"to  support  their  own  poor,  send  away  stragglers,  and 
provide  accommodation  for  the  sick."  In  fact,  there 
sprang  up  over  Northern  Europe  the  general  idea  that 
each  locality  should  make  provisions  for  three  classes  of 
poor — the  vagrant,  the  impotent,  and  the  able-bodied  out 
of  work.  Sometimes  this  was  made  compulsory,  and  some- 
times only  suggestions  were  made.  England  furnishes 
us  the  best  example  of  these  laws. 

1  Fowle,  T.  W.,  Poor  Law,  pp.  22-23. 
'Fowle,  T.  W.,  Poor  Law,  p.  23. 


Treatment  of  Poverty  467 

English  Poor  Laws,  1601-1834.— Until  1601  there  was 
no  relief  policy  in  England  worthy  of  the  name.  The 
laws  hitherto  were  against  the  poor  and  the  rights  of 
labor.  The  laborer  was  reduced  to  a  condition  of  servi- 
tude ;  he  was  confined  to  his  place  of  birth  and  compelled 
to  work  for  fixed  wages.  These  were  set  by  law,  and 
sometimes  by  justices  who  were  themselves  employers 
of  labor.  The  work  rates  were  determined  by  the  wages 
of  the  previous  five  or  six  years,  or  by  the  price  of  food- 
stuffs. If  the  laborer  wandered  around  in  search  of 
work  at  the  highest  possible  price,  he  was  liable  to 
barbarous  punishments,  such  as  whipping,  branding, 
burning  or  cropping  the  ears,  the  pillory,  imprisonment, 
and  even  death  itself. 

The  law  of  1601,  which  was  a  compilation  of  a  series 
of  previous  measures,  provided  for  the  appointment  of 
two  or  three  overseers  in  each  parish,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  raise  a  poor  rate  by  subscription  or  by  taxation.  Then 
if  a  person  could  not  make  a  living,  what  he  lacked  was 
supplied  from  the  general  fund.  It  was  thus  a  system 
of  public  charity  with  ample  opportunity  for  abuse.  If 
a  man  was  out  of  work,  the  parish  tried  to  provide  work, 
even  to  the  point  of  selling  the  labor  of  the  pauper  and 
making  up  the  balance.  Sometimes  the  man  would  be 
paid  if  he  applied  for  work — a  procedure  which  led  to 
the  practice  of  walking  the  "rounds"  and  to  that  of 
farmers  certifying  that  so-and-so  had  called.  Sometimes 
farmers  were  compelled  to  employ  the  paupers,  thus  be- 
ing forced  to  discharge  their  regular  hands.  This  law 
further  offered  the  employers  the  inducement  to  establish 
lower  wages;  for  the  deficit  would  be  made  up  from  the 
poor  rate.  Of  course  the  poor  rates  became  oppressive, 
amounting  finally  to  over  $30,000,000  a  year  in  England, 
which  then  had  a  population  of  only  11,000,000;  and 
money  was  much  more  valuable  then  than  it  is  to-day. 
Rates  became  so  high,  indeed,  that  it  was  hard  to  find 
tenants  for  farms,  the  rates  often  amounting  to  as  much 
as  five  dollars  an  acre.  As  a  result  the  rate  payer  be- 
came worse  off  than  the  pauper.  The  poor  laborer  was 


468  Treatment  of  Poverty 

in  a  more  deplorable  condition,  for  he  had  to  work  harder 
for  lower  wages  and  was  in  constant  danger  of  being 
replaced  by  paupers.  If  one  was  industrious  and  saved, 
he  received  no  work;  so  it  was  foolish  to  work  hard;  in 
fact  many  couples  left  home  in  order  to  live  in  the  work- 
house, where  little  work  was  required.  All  industry  be- 
came disorganized.  Better  wages  were  frequently  refused 
for  fear  of  losing  one 's  settlement  and  there  was  a  general 
deterioration  in  industry  and  in  morals.  In  the  alms- 
houses  the  inmates  were  well  fed,  but  they  lived  in  idle- 
ness, having  nothing  to  occupy  their  attention. 

This  condition  became  intolerable;  so  in  1833  a  Poor 
Law  Commission  was  appointed,  which  drew  up  the  act 
adopted  by  Parliament  in  the  following  year,  and  ex- 
tended to  Ireland  in  1838  and  to  Scotland  in  1845.  The 
principal  features  of  this  act  were  the  abandonment  of 
the  policy  of  relief  to  able-bodied  persons,  and  the  substi- 
tution of  the  celebrated  "workhouse  test,"  by  means  of 
which  relief  was  to  be  given  to  the  able-bodied  only  in 
well-regulated  workhouses,  where  work  was  required  of 
all.  Unions  or  parishes  were  formed  to  build  and  operate 
these  workhouses.  They  were  uninviting  and  the  relief 
given  was  such  as  only  the  destitute  would  accept.  The 
commission  thought  that  they  had  settled  the  question 
forever,  for  in  this  way  aid  would  be  limited  to  the 
worthy  poor.  But  the  system  was  too  rigid  and  the  prob- 
lem of  poverty  became  so  serious  that  towards  the  end 
of  the  nineteenth  century  great  dissatisfaction  arose  over 
its  failure.  As  a  result,  the  present  system  of  social 
insurance  was  adopted  in  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth 
century.  . 

American  Treatment  of  Poverty. — The  American  sys- 
tem has  centered  around  the  almshouse,  but  it  is  to  be 
doubted  if  any  other  institution  needs  reform  so  much 
as  the  American  poor-farm,  for  it  is  an  institution  that 
has  been  sadly  neglected.  It  has  served  as  a  catch-all 
for  every  class:  the  worthy  poor,  the  feeble-minded,  the 
insane,  the  epileptic,  drunkards,  prostitutes — all  classes, 
in  fact,  from  the  able-bodied  to  the  helpless;  from  the 


Treatment  of  Poverty  469 

hard-working  man  or  woman  who  has  lived  an  honorable, 
upright  life,  but  who  is  broken  down  in  old  age,  to  the 
drunken,  immoral  wreck  who  has  done  nothing  but 
squander  his  or  her  talents;  from  the  innocent  orphan 
to  the  hardened,  vulgar,  dissolute,  criminal  ne'er-do-well. 
Almshouses  are  under  the  control  of  the  county  authori- 
ties, except  those  in  the  states  of  Maine,  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  Since  1890  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  consolidate  the  smaller  ones,  and 
hundreds  of  such  unions  have  been  effected.  Also  in 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  remove  many 
persons  from  the  almshouse  who  do  not  belong  there,  such 
as  the  feeble-minded,  deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  insane,  and 
epileptic. 

The  almshouse   system  has  passed  through  four  dif- 
ferent stages,  as  follows: 

(1)  That  in  force  before  the  erection  of  any  special 
building,  when  the  paupers  were  boarded  out  or  some- 
times farmed  out  to  the  lowest  bidder. 

(2)  The  first  efforts  at  housing,  when  some  old  cottage 
or  farm-house  would  be  purchased.    This  would  serve  as 
a  catch-all  for  old,  infirm,  insane,  epileptic,  and  idiotic 
persons   and   for   abandoned    children,    and   foundlings. 
Here  they  received  little  attention  from  the  public,  with 
the  exception  of  grumbling  over  the  expense  they  caused. 
The  whole  aim  was  economy,  and  the  management  of  the 
place  was  generally  given  to  the  lowest  bidder. 

(3)  The  opposite  extreme  was  a  magnificent  structure, 
imposing  from  the  outside,  but  erected  with  no  regard 
for  comfort,  being  usually  four  or  five  stories  high,  and 
built  with  the  same  number  of  rooms  for  women  as  for 
men,  although  men  outnumber  the  women  two  or  three 
to  one.     The  writer  well  remembers  a  visit  to  such  a 
poor-farm  in  LaFayette  County,  Missouri. 

(4)  The  cottage  plan,  the  houses  being  sometimes  con- 
nected by  passage-ways.    This  plan  allows  separation  of 
the  sexes  and  provides  for  the  different  classes  of  inmates, 
and  also  for  separate  hospital  cottages.  This  is  the  modern 
almshouse,  and  is  the  best  plan,  especially  if  enough  land 


470  Treatment  of  Poverty 

is  provided  for  light  outdoor  employment  to  such  as  are 
still  able  to  work. 

Our  almshouses  in  the  past  have  been  conducted  in  a 
deplorable  manner;  the  inmates  have  been  neglected  and 
even  at  times  abused.  Generally  they  have  been  poorly 
fed,  poorly  clad,  and  badly  housed,  to  say  nothing  of 
being  deprived  of  the  comforts  of  life.  One  has  only  to 
turn  to  the  accounts  of  Professor  Ellwood3  in  his  investi- 
gation of  Missouri  almshouses  to  get  a  picture  of  such 
abuses. 

But  when  we  consider  the  difficulties  of  running  the 
almshouse,  such  as  (1)  lack  of  money  and  the  consequent 
poor  pay  which  of  course  would  attract  only  inefficient 
superintendents;  (2)  the  class  of  inmates — the  riff-raff 
and  scum,  the  inefficient,  the  half-witted,  and  the  crazy; 
(3)  the  stolid,  unsympathetic,  and  inefficient  person  who 
would  be  attracted  to,  or  be  willing  to  accept  the  posi- 
tion of  superintendent,  and  (4)  the  bad  temper  and 
unappreciativeness  of  the  inmates — an  attitude  that 
would  try  the  patience  of  the  most  sympathetic — it  is  no 
wonder  that  we  have  such  miserable  conditions.  These 
difficulties  were  only  exaggerated  when  the  lease  system 
was  employed,  for  then  a  premium  was  put  upon  neg- 
ligence and  stinginess. 

The  management  of  the  almshouse  does  not  matter  so 
much  when  the  inmates  are  old,  for  death  will  soon  relieve 
the  unfortunates,  but  it  blasts  the  whole  life  of  the  child 
inmates.  The  neglect,  ill  treatment,  and  horrible  environ- 
ment kill  all  the  good  qualities  and  send  the  persons  away 
destined  to  return  later  as  permanent  inmates.  While  this 
condition  is  slowly  being  remedied  by  the  removal  of 
many  classes  from  the  almshouse,  and  the  better  care 
of  those  remaining,  this  is  a  matter  which  needs  our 
attention  probably  more  than  any  other  phase  of  our 
relief  policy.  Professor  Ellwood  recommends  three 
remedial  lines  of  work:  (1)  visitation  of  the  local  board; 
(2)  inspection  by  state  authorities;  and  (3)  mandatory 
and  prohibitive  legislation.  Even  at  the  best  it  is  no 

"Ellwood,  Charles  A.,  Bulletin  on  Almsliouses  in  Missouri. 


Treatment  of  Poverty  471 

easy  matter  to  run  an  almshouse,  considering  the  class 
of  inmates.  Then  it  is  very  difficult  to  find  suitable  work 
for  all;  but  the  inmates  must  be  kept  occupied  if  they 
are  to  be  contented.  Successful  almshouse  management 
requires  tact  and  ability,  far  more  in  fact  than  will  be 
found  in  the  average  person  willing  to  undertake  such 
work. 

Other  Relief  Institutions. — Another  class  which  has  to 
be  considered  here  is  dependent  children.  There  always 
have  been  and  probably  always  will  be  orphan  and  de- 
pendent children.  They  were  formerly  one  of  the  sources 
from  which  the  ranks  of  slavery  were  recruited.  The 
church,  especially  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  when  it 
was  at  the  height  of  its  power,  took  care  of  these  in  the 
nunneries  and  monasteries  and  in  orphan  and  foundling 
asylums.  It  did  this,  not  from  motives  of  philanthropy 
and  altruism,  but  to  win  recruits.  Foundling  asylums  are 
ancient  institutions  and  have  always  been  numerous  in  . 
France,  where  the  need  of  them,  because  of  the  wide- 
spread immorality,  has  always  been  great.  There  any 
one  could  leave  a  child  with  no  questions  asked,  provision 
being  frequently  made  to  drop  the  child  into  a  basket 
specially  placed  for  the  purpose.  The  foundling  asylums 
were  often  supported  by  the  state,  as  were  the  orphan 
asylums,  and  were  frequently  mismanaged,  as  Dickens 
has  poignantly  shown  in  Oliver  Twist,  a  picture  of  life 
in  the  English  orphan  asylum. 

In  England  the  labor  of  orphans  was  sold  to  the  fac- 
tories, as  we  have  seen  under  Child  Labor.  The  abuses  in 
the  past  have  been  terrible.  The  death-rate  in  the  found- 
ling asylums  has  been  at  times  almost  unbelievable,  run- 
ning even  as  high  as  ninety-seven  per  cent.  This  situation 
is  unavoidable  to  some  extent,  because  of  the  condition 
of  the  children  upon  admission;  they  have  been  poorly 
nourished,  have  received  practically  no  care  in  many 
cases,  and  often  have  been  injured  by  efforts  to  kill  them 
before  birth.  Yet  when  the  babies  are  properly  cared  for, 
the  death-rate  falls  to  almost  normal,  or  at  least  some- 
where near  it.  Ignorance  and  neglect  of  the  attendants 


472  Treatment  of  Poverty 

make  it  much  higher  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  As  a 
rule  they  take  no  interest  in  the  child  except  to  see  that 
it  makes  as  little  trouble  as  possible,  often  using  opiates 
to  quiet  it.  They  do  not  care  whether  the  child  lives  or 
not ;  in  fact  nobody;  cares. 

Considering  the  class  from  which  these  children  come 
and  the  future  before  them,  the  question  often  arises 
whether  a  high  death-rate  is  wholly  bad  in  the  end, 
either  for  the  public  or  the  child  itself.  Another  cause 
of  the  abnormally  high  death-rate  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  babies  cannot  be  reared  by  wholesale,  but  require 
individual  attention  and  affection,  even  if  other  condi- 
tions, such  as  sunlight,  air,  food,  and  clothing  are  good. 
The  child  misses  the  advantage  of  breast  feeding,  although 
this  lack  is  sometimes  overcome  by  boarding  it  out  with 
a  wet  nurse — a  procedure  followed  by  the  New  York 
State  Charities  Aid  Association  with  children  under  six 
months  of  age.  By  the  careful  boarding  out  of  foundlings 
received  from  the  Charities  Aid  Societies  in  Manhattan, 
the  Bronx,  and  Brooklyn,  the  death-rate  was  reduced  from 
59.9  per  cent  in  1898  to  11.6  per  cent  in  1906.  In  Massa- 
chusetts the  practice  of  boarding  out  is  carried  on  as  far 
as  possible,  with  a  careful  selection  of  homes.  After  the 
child  grows  up,  he  is  subject  to  grave  abuses,  often  being 
brutally  treated  not  only  in  the  institution  but  in  the 
home.  Where  the  system  of  placing  out  is  used,  it  has 
to  be  supplemented  by  careful  selection  of  families  and 
rigid,  frequent  inspection  afterwards  to  see  that  the  child 
is  properly  treated. 

While  institutional  care  for  children  may  have  advan- 
tages, such  as  adequate  food  supply,  sufficient  clothes, 
a  warm  place  in  which  to  sleep,  regular  schooling,  and 
protection  from  danger,  these  are  more  than  outweighed 
by  the  disadvantages.  Often  the  child  is  maltreated  by 
hard-hearted  and  unsympathetic  attendants.  Not  only; 
is  the  rate  of  mortality  high,  but  the  discipline  is  demoral- 
izing to  the,  child  that  survives;  and  even  when  the 
discipline  is  not  harsh,  the  system  makes  a  machine  rather 
than  a  man  of  him.  The  child  does  not  learn  how  to  do 


Treatment  of  Poverty  473 

the  ordinary  things  of  life,  such  as  how  to  use  matches 
and  to  care  for  fire,  for  such  matters  are  all  done  by 
attendants.  At  home  the  child  learns  to  do  such  things 
and  acquires  some  sense  of  responsibility.  The  children 
learn  too  easily  to  submit  to  rule,  to  discomfort  or  to 
pain.  Attendants  are  employed  who  have  institutional 
experience,  persons  who  are  thus  able  to  suppress  the 
children  with  the  minimum  of  trouble,  who  remember 
that  the  more  suppressed  the  child  is,  the  less  trouble  it 
will  give.  As  a  result  the  child  comes  out  of  the  institu- 
tion with  no  sense  of  responsibility  and  no  conception  of 
the  value  of  money.  It  does  not  develop  independence, 
and  so  is  seldom  able  to  form  sound  judgments.  In  fact, 
institutional  life  totally  unfits  the  individual  for  leader- 
ship. This  tendency  is  overcome  in  some  institutions  by 
a  system  of  self-government;  probably  the  most  famous 
of  the  institutions  using  such  methods  being  the  George 
Junior  Republic.  The  Massachusetts  system  is  likewise 
a  good  one.  This  is  a  combination  plan,  in  which  about 
forty  per  cent  of  the  children,  mostly  the  young  ones, 
are  boarded  out,  about  forty-five  per  cent  placed  in 
families,  and  only  about  fifteen  per  cent  cared  for  in 
institutions.  Placing  in  private  institutions  is  used  some- 
times, but  it  is,  as  a  general  rule,  bad,  for  it  subsidizes 
private  institutions  and  too  often  discourages  private 
philanthropy,  even  if  it  does  not  lead  to  graft;  moreover 
the  treatment  is  not  always  the  best. 

The  best  methods  should  include,  if  possible,  an  attempt 
to  repair  the  breaches  and  defects  of  the  home,  before 
breaking  up  the  family  relation,  and  then,  accept  insti- 
tutional care  only  as  a  temporary  expedient  for  such 
classes  as  the  deaf,  the  feeble-minded,  deformed,  incur- 
able, and  delinquent  children.  A  selected  private  home, 
chosen  with  great  care  and  visited  under  a  system  of 
careful  supervision,  is  the  best  substitute.  There  is  also 
a  growing  demand  for  supervision  of  private  institutions. 
Small  institutions  are  at  a  disadvantage  because  of  the 
cost  of  placing  out  and  the  consequent  supervision. 

So  far  as  institutions  are  necessary,  they  should  be 


474  Treatment  of  Poverty 

organized  on  the  cottage  plan,  with  only  a  limited  num- 
ber of  children  to  each  cottage,  and  in  charge  of  a  house 
mother. 

Another  kind  of  relief  work  demanding  institutional 
treatment  is  the  care  of  the  destitute  sick.  In  the  past 
thirty  or  forty  years  the  attitude  towards  hospitals  has 
changed ;  they  are  no  longer  regarded  as  places  in  which 
to  die,  but  as  places  in  which  to  get  well.  It  is  now 
recognized  that  the  poor  man  who  is  not  able  to  pay  any- 
thing should  receive  as  good  treatment  as  the  rich.  As 
a  result  of  an  attempt  to  obtain  these  two  conditions  the 
cost  of  hospital  service  nearly  doubled  between  1870  and 
1910,  on  account  of  increase  in  the  cost  of  food,  better 
care  and  accommodations,  and  higher  pay  to  nurses.  Of 
the  money  which  it  took  to  maintain  the  hospitals  of  the 
United  States  in  1903,  18.1  per  cent  was  paid  by  annual 
subsidies  from  public  funds;  43.2  per  cent  was  met  by 
pay  patients;  and  the  remainder  was  obtained  from 
charity.  These  hospitals  treated  1,064,512  patients  in  1903, 
or  1.3  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  1910  there  were 
1918  such  institutions,  and  they  treated  1,953,309  patients 
or  2.1  per  cent  of  the  population.  Although  the  number 
of  hospitals  and  their  facilities  are  increasing,  there  are 
still  not  enough  of  them.  Some  of  the  motives  leading 
to  the  development  of  medical  charities  have  been  the 
following:4  (1)  the  desire  to  aid  the  destitute;  (2)  zeal 
to  advertise  a  religious  faith ;  (3)  the  ambition  to  educate 
students  and  build  up  medical  reputations;  (4)  the  wish 
to  protect  the  public  health  against  infection  and  con- 
tagion; (5)  the  economic  motive  to  restore  earning  power 
and  thus,  save  loss  of  wages.  The  fifth  motive  has 
prompted  corporations  to  provide  hospitals  for  their 
workers. 

Two  types  of  hospitals  appear  in  the  United  States : 
(1)  The  municipal,  developed  from  the  almshouse  or 
city  jail,  where  it  originated  in  the  attempt  to  treat  the 
patients  there.    While  such  a  hospital  is  liable  to  political 

4  First  four  motives  taken  from  Warner,  American  Charities,  second 
edition  (1908),  p.  304. 


Treatment  of  Poverty  475 

mismanagement  (the  past  has  shown  much  graft  and  poor 
management),  these  conditions  are  rapidly  being  removed, 
and  we  now  have  many  efficient  city  hospitals. 

(2)  Corporate,  generally  managed  by  an  unsalaried 
board  composed  of  prominent  citizens,  ministers,  business 
men,  and  philanthropists.  Though  such  men  often  know 
nothing  about  methods  of  running  a  hospital,  the 
efficiency  of  these  institutions  is  constantly  increasing. 
The  death-rate  in  hospitals  has  decreased  tremendously 
in  the  past  thirty  years,  especially  in  the  free  city  hospi- 
tals. This  decrease  is  due  largely  to  the  greater  efficiency 
of  the  nurses,  obtained  through  the  establishment  of  nurs- 
ing schools,  and  by  the  use  of  civil  service  examinations 
in  the  appointment  of  nurses. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  increase  and  spread 
in  usefulness  of  the  dispensaries  in  the  United  States. 
Most  of  these  charge  a  small  fee  for  medicines  for  those 
who  are  able  to  pay.  These  dispensaries  aid  people  who 
are  down  and  out,  those  who  are  in  need  of  medical  atten- 
tion but  cannot  afford  to  go  to  a  physician;  also  those 
who  can  afford  to  pay  a  small  sum  for  medicines  and 
treatment,  but  who  cannot  pay  for  private  medical  care. 
The  dispensaries  are  supplemented  by  the  district  and 
visiting  nurses  who  help  the  sick  in  their  own  homes  and 
— what  is  still  more  important — try  to  prevent  sickness 
or  at  least  check  it  before  it  has  reached  a  serious  stage. 
In  19105  there  were  574  dispensaries,  of  which  less  than 
half  were  connected  with  hospitals,  and  in  which  2,440,018 
persons  were  treated.  More  than  half  of  these  dis- 
pensaries were  located  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  Division. 
The  number  of  clinics,  especially  those  for  children,  men- 
tally defective  and  the  tubercular  has  greatly  increased 
since  1910. 

Special  hospitals  for  certain  diseases  and  homes  for  the 
incurable  are  further  extensions  of  this  work  of  medical 
relief.  While  rapidly  increasing  these  are  still  inadequate. 
It  is  in  line  with  the  modern  theory  of  the  prevention  of 

•Bureau  of  Census,  1910,  Benevolent  Institutions,  1913,  p.  51. 


476  Treatment  of  Poverty 

poverty.  Dental  dispensaries  are  among  the  latest  de- 
velopments. The  United  Charities  of  Chicago  maintains 
two  such  for  the  poor;  in  1915  these  performed  daily 
dental  operations  at  an  average  cost  of  six  and  one-half 
cents. 

Homes  for  the  aged  are  also  increasing.  A  system  of 
old  age  pensions,  however,  is  in  all  likelihood  the  best 
.way  of  dealing  with  this  problem,  provided  the  system 
is  made  contributory;  for  this  plan  will  compel  people 
to  provide  for  old  age  and  will  enable  them  to  maintain 
their  own  homes  and  not  become  dependent  upon  charity. 
However,  we  are  not  ready  at  present  for  old  age  insur- 
ance in  the  United  States. 

Outdoor  Relief. — In  addition  to  the  indoor  relief  given 
in  the  various  institutions,  outdoor  relief,  or  relief  given 
the  poor  in  their  homes,  other  than  medical,  has  been 
used  a  great  deal  in  the  past.  The  character  of  such 
relief  has  changed  greatly  in  recent  years,  for  there  is 
a  tendency  to  substitute  private  for  public  relief;  not  to 
aid  the  person  because  that  person  is  poor,  but  to  help 
lift  him  out  of  his  condition  or  prevent  his  falling  be- 
low the  poverty  line.  The  old  method  of  doling  out  a 
few  dollars  or  some  groceries  is  not  followed  so  much 
now  as  formerly,  largely  because  of  the  abuses  attendant 
in  the  past,  especially  in  the  large  Eastern  cities.  When 
this  method  is  followed  it  is  only  to  provide  partial  aid 
or  temporary  relief. 

There  are  arguments  in  favor  of  retaining  outdoor 
relief,  such  as:6 

(1)  It  is  the  natural  method  and  is  thus  an  expression 
of  the  spirit  of  neighborliness.    It  does  not  break  up  the 
family  or  separate  dependent  persons  from  friends  and 
neighbors.    The  disgrace  is  less,  because  the  help  is  less 
conspicuous,  although  this  is  not  always  an  advantage. 
And  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  be  separated  from  one's 
neighbors,  occasionally  even  from  relatives. 

(2)  It  is  argued  that  it  is  more  economical,  for  most 

•Warner,  Axnos  G.,  American  Charities,  (third  edition,  1918),  pp. 
268-209. 


Treatment  of  Poverty  477 

families  can  almost  make  a  living,  and  hence  it  is  folly  to 
break  up  the  family  and  thus  increase  expense.  Yet  on 
the  other  hand,  the  number  of  persons  helped  will  grow, 
and  the  total  cost  may  even  increase,  because  otherwise 
many  families  would  manage  for  themselves. 

(3)  One  of  the  strongest  arguments  is  found  in  the 
fact    that    there    are    not    enough    institutions    and    the 
consequent  fact  that  greater  equipment  would    thus    be 
demanded.    It  would  be  uneconomical  to  meet  these  de- 
mands, for  the  amount  of  poverty  fluctuates  with  the 
seasons  and  with  prosperity.     Institutions  sufficient  to 
meet  all  demands  would  be  empty  most  of  the  time. 

(4)  Individual  private  charity,  the  alternative  of  public 
outdoor  relief,   is   uncertain   and  unreliable,   depending 
upon  emotion,  sentiment  and  prosperity.    When  it  would 
be  needed  the  most  it  would  be  least  forthcoming,  as  was 
evidenced  in  the  winter  of  1914-15,  when  the  charity 
organizations  all  over  the  country  were  hardest  pressed 
for  aid,  and  when  necessary  funds  were  hardest  to  secure 
because  of  the  hard  times.    Also  under  individual  private 
charities  relief  is  liable  to  be  duplicated. 

Against  such  arguments  are  advanced  the  following 
counter-arguments  :7 

(1)  Except  in  small  communities  there  can  be  no  real 
inspection  or  supervision,  and  no  chance  for  investiga- 
tion or  discrimination.    The  policy  generally  followed  is 
to  make  it  as  difficult  as  possible  to  get  relief;  the  actual 
result  is  that  those  who  need  it  get  disgusted  and  only 
the  unworthy  receive  it.    Relief  thus  becomes  mechanical 
and  unsympathetic. 

(2)  Unless  the  receipt  of  relief  is  made  unpleasant, 
the  number  of  paupers  will  be  increased.     There  would 
be  less  incentive  to  save,  for  the  state  could  always  be 
depended  upon.     This  increase  would  more  than  make 
up  for  all  the  contributions  of  paupers  to  their  own 
support. 

(3)  Such  a  relief  policy  would  lead  to  political  corrup- 

T  Warner,  Amos  G.,  American  Charities,  (third  edition,  1918),  pp. 
209-210. 


478  Treatment  of  Poverty 

tion,  such  as  occurred  in  Rome.  This  situation  is  much 
more  important  in  the  cities,  especially  the  large  ones, 
but  is  found  even  in  the  small  towns.  Giving  is  done  to 
curry  favor  and  to  further  political  ambitions. 

(4)  If  such  relief  is  lavish  it  results  in  a  reduction  in 
wages,  for  employers  know  that  the  deficiency  in  wages 
will  be  made  up  out  of  public  relief.    This  was  the  result 
in  England. 

(5)  And  what  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all, 
lavish  relief  would  destroy  thrift  and  self-respect.     For 
why  should  any  one  work  when  the  public  treasury  is 
open?    People  would  receive  help  or  ask  for  it,  because 
their  neighbors  did  the  same. 

The  whole  matter  simmers  down  to  a  question  of  admin- 
istration. As  a  rule  public  outdoor  relief  is  generally 
preferred  only  in  small  towns  and  rural  communities, 
except  in  cases  of  special  classes  of  defectives,  who  can 
be  better  cared  for  in  institutions.  On  the  other  hand, 
indoor  relief  is  preferred  in  large  cities,  except  in  cases 
demanding  partial  or  temporary  relief. 

Charity  Organization. — The  alternative  to  public  relief, 
instead  of  being  indiscriminate  private  relief,  is  organized 
charity.  The  movement  towards  organization  began  in 
Europe,  where  it  early  manifested  itself  in  the  principal 
cities,  such  as  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Vienna.  This  occurred 
about  the  middle  of  the  past  century.  The  movement 
spread  to  England  and  America,  and  first  found  a  foot- 
hold in  the  United  States  in  1877,  when  the  Buffalo 
Charity  Organization  Society  was  established.  Since  then 
it  has  spread  to  nearly  all  our  cities  and  is  now  being 
adopted  by  counties.  This  is  done  to  avoid  duplication, 
to  divide  up  the  work  so  as  to  cover  all  needs,  and  to  see 
that  each  endeavor  has  its  share  of  funds.  Such  a  plan 
not  only  prevents  overlapping,  but  eliminates  impostors. 
Co-operation  is  obtained  through  the  comparison  of  records 
kept  in  a  central  office  equipped  with  card  catalogues. 
Prompt  relief  can  be  obtained  by  bringing  the  case  to 
the  attention  of  the  proper  authorities.  Better  results 
are  secured  also  in  the  collection  of  funds  through 


Treatment  of  Poverty  479 

co-operation.  This  work  is  now  being  supplemented  by 
endorsement  committees  generally  appointed  by  the  com- 
mercial associations  or  chambers  of  commerce,  who  in- 
vestigate the  different  charitable  organizations  and 
require  them  to  conduct  their  affairs  in  accordance  with 
business  principles,  to  spend  their  funds  wisely,  and  to 
see  also  that  there  is  a  real  need.  Then  there  is  usually 
coupled  with  this  some  method  of  raising  funds  by  tag- 
day,  assessment,  or  general  subscription.  In  this  way 
those  willing  to  contribute  know  where  their  money  goes 
and  how  it  is  spent;  therefore  they  respond  much  more 
liberally.  Charity  organization  is  really  the  conducting 
of  charity  in  accordance  with  business  methods.  It  has 
its  failings  as  well  as  advantages;  for  relief  is  too  often 
mechanical,  and  too  much  system  and  red-tape  are  fre- 
quently employed.  The  endorsement  committees  are  often 
composed  of  business  men  who  are  not  familiar  with 
charity  work  and  the  needs  of  the  community,  and  who 
are  not  always  competent  persons  to  pass  upon  charity 
matters.  In  general,  however,  this  plan  of  organization 
enables  much  more  efficient  work  to  be  done  and  much 
greater  undertakings  to  be  carried  through.  It  is  a  great 
improvement  upon  indiscriminate  private  giving  and 
unorganized  charity.  Such  charity  has  to  some  extent  the 
personal  touch  and  a  certain  discrimination  which  public 
charity  is  rarely  capable  of  giving.  Under  this  system 
charity  cannot  be  claimed  as  a  right,  as  occurs  in  many 
cases  with  public  relief.  It,  however,  is  not  always 
able  to  meet  a  great  calamity  or  crisis  when  it  arises,  be- 
cause in  such  a  crisis  the  difficulty  of  raising  funds  also 
increases.  But  on  the  whole,  organized  private  charity 
is  to-day  our  best  method  of  dealing  with  the  relief 
problem. 

The  Elberfeld  System. — A  system  of  relief  and  charity 
organization  known  sometimes  as  the  Hamburg-Elberfeld, 
because  it  originated  in  Hamburg  and  was  developed  to 
its  present  high  state  in  Elberfeld,  Germany,  but  more 
commonly  called  the  Elberfeld  system,  has  not  only  been 
generally  adopted  throughout  Europe,  but  has  been 


480  Treatment  of  Poverty 

recognized  as  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best,  relief  system 
ever  devised.  It  started  in  Hamburg  about  1765  at  a 
time  when  a  vast  amount  of  poverty  and  misery  was 
present  in  Europe,  when  the  streets  of  Hamburg  were 
lined  with  beggars,  and  when  thousands  were  asking  for 
aid,  having  been  attracted  there  because  of  the  great 
prosperity  of  that  place.  The  scheme  was  proposed  by 
a  certain  Professor  Bush ;  it  divided  the  city  into  districts, 
over  each  of  which  an  overseer  was  appointed.  The 
overseers  reported  to  a  central  office.  Giving  to  beggars 
was  forbidden,  an  industrial  school  for  children  was 
established,  and  a  hospital  provided ;  but  most  important 
of  all,  the  poor  were  taught  to  help  themselves.  The 
system  freed  Hamburg  of  beggars  and  relieved  the 
poverty  situation.  Later,  however,  it  was  abandoned.  It 
was  revived  in  Elberfeld  with  some  modifications  in  1852 
and  has  continued.  There  it  operates  as  follows:  The 
city  is  divided  into  districts,  over  each  of  which  an  over- 
seer, or  almoner,  as  he  is  called,  is  appointed,  who  looks 
after  the  poor  cases  in  his  district,  and  who  has  general 
oversight  of  living  conditions.  This  almoner  is  unpaid 
and  the  service  is  compulsory,  or  rather  if  it  is  not  given 
when  required  an  extra  rate  is  imposed  upon  the  person 
refusing  and  he  loses  his  voting  privilege  for  a  period 
of  years.  But  as  the  office  is  considered  a  stepping-stone 
to  political  preferment,  few  people  object  to  the  work, 
and  very  able  people  accept  it.  Then  since  the  districts 
are  so  small  that  never  more  than  four  cases,  and  seldom 
more  than  one  or  two,  are  given  to  each  almoner,  the 
service  is  personal  and  intimate  and  takes  the  form  of 
true  neighborliness.  Because  of  the  patriotic  interest  in 
it  the  work- is  done  very  efficiently.  These  small  districts 
are  included  in  larger  districts;  the  almoners  meet  fort- 
nightly, and  the  chairmen  of  these  meetings  report  to  a 
central  committee  of  nine,  which  has  charge  of  the  relief 
system  of  the  whole  city.  This  central  committee  includes 
a  trained  paid  administrator  and  paid  assistants.  It  pre- 
pares instructions  for  the  district  leaders  and  the  visitors, 
divides  up  the  work,  appoints  the  visitors,  supervises  the 


Treatment  of  Poverty  481 

hospitals,  investigates  causes  of  poverty,  initiates  legisla- 
tion, and  institutes  other  measures  of  amelioration. 

The  success  of  the  scheme  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
population  of  Elberfeld  increased  from  50,000  in  1852  to 
162,000  in  1904,  whereas  the  number  of  those  receiving 
either  temporary  or  permanent  help  increased  only  from 
4000  to  7689,  or  a  decrease  of  from  8  to  4.7  per  cent  of 
the  population.  The  cost  of  relief  for  each  person  in 
1852  was  eighty-nine  cents  and  in  1904  eighty-eight  cents 
— a  great  reduction  when  we  take  into  consideration  the 
increase  in  amount  of  wealth  and  the  fall  in  the  value  of 
money.  While  this  system  has  not  been  adopted  to  any 
great  extent  in  America,  it  offers  us  many  valuable  sug- 
gestions; with  some  changes  made  to  fit  the  conditions, 
it  might  be  well  adapted  to  relief  needs  in  this  country, 
especially  in  smaller  cities. 

Public  vs.  Private  Relief. — A  great  deal  of  discussion 
has  arisen  over  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
two  plans  of  relief — public  and  private.  Much  could  be 
said  in  favor  of  each.  It  might  be  laid  down  as  a  general 
principle  that  for  new  lines  of  work,  involving  experi- 
mentation and  exploration  of  a  new  field,  private  charity 
is  better.  But  when  the  public  is  educated  to  the  need 
of  a  definite  plan  of  action,  when  the  work  has  reached 
such  a  stage  of  development  that  it  can  be  systematized, 
and  when  the  need  is  more  or  less  permanent,  it  might  be 
better  to  turn  the  task  over  to  public  authorities.  As 
a  rule,  private  charity  is  much  more  easily  directed  to 
something  that  is  new,  but  after  the  work  becomes 
familiar,  interest  is  apt  to  die  out.  On  the  other  hand, 
public  authorities  are  not  so  well  fitted  to  carry  on  new 
work,  but  are  better  fitted  to  carry  on  old  lines  of  work. 
When  a  certain  type  of  work  is  needed  and  demanded 
by  the  public,  it  is  only  fair  and  just  that  the  public 
should  be  asked  to  carry  the  burden  and  not  to  leave  it  to 
a  few  philanthropists.  Public  and  private  charity  can  go 
hand  in  hand  and  not  be  antagonistic.  Private  charity 
is  good  in  that  it  encourages  altruism  and  allows  those 
who  are  able  to  relieve  'the  sufferings  of  those  who  are 


482  Treatment  of  Poverty 

less  fortunate.  Then  public  charity;  is  necessary  for  the 
reason  that  there  are  lines  of  work  which  involve  great 
expense,  but  work  which  cannot  be  permitted  to  be 
dropped  or  crippled  in  any  way  through  lack  of  well- 
organized  effort. 

The  Trend  of  Modern  Charity. — Former  ages  accepted 
poverty,  misery,  distress,  incapacity,  and  industrial 
slavery  as  inevitable.  As  a  rule  people  tried  not  to  notice 
suffering  and  wretchedness  but  to  keep  away  from  it; 
like  the  priest  and  Levite,  they  passed  by  on  the  other 
side  of  the  road.  Now  we  recognize  that  not  only  can 
poverty,  disease,  and  misery  be  done  away  with,  but 
that  they  must  be ;  that  unless  we  stop  them  we  shall  be 
engulfed  by  the  degenerate  classes.  While  some  charity 
workers  are  too  busy  picking  up  those  who  have  fallen 
off  the  cliff  to  stop  to  build  a  fence  at  the  top,  others  are 
building  fences  and  trying  to  prevent  people  from  fall- 
ing. In  other  words,  prevention  is  the  keyword  of  all 
future  charitable  work.  Help  those  who  need  relief,  but 
still  more  try  to  put  them  upon  their  feet  so  that  they 
will  not  need  help  in  the  future.  Then  what  is  still  more 
important,  remove  the  causes  of  poverty  and  prevent 
others  from  falling  below  the  poverty  line ;  lock  the  stable 
door  before  the  horse  is  stolen.  If  low  wages  cause 
poverty,  adopt  a  minimum  wage  schedule.  If  intemperance 
is  the  cause,  work  for  prohibition.  If  bad  sanitation  is 
the  cause,  put  in  sewers  and  better  plumbing.  If  bad 
housing  conditions  are  the  cause,  adopt  a  better  building 
code  and  see  that  unsanitary  houses  are  not  occupied. 
'Alleviate  present  poverty,  but  see  that  the  conditions 
which  caused  it  are  removed. 

Program  for  Prevention  of  Poverty. — In  our  discussion 
of  the  causes  of  poverty  we  have  pointed  out  in  most 
cases  the  measures  for  curing  them.  In  addition  to  such 
measures  the  hope  of  the  future  lies  along  the  following 
lines : 

1.  The  advancement  and  continuance  of  all  movements 
which  try  to  prevent  or  remove  bad  conditions,  such  as 
those  working  for  better  housing,  pure  milk,  better  sani- 


Treatment  of  Poverty  483 

tation,  the  draining  of  swamps,  disposal  of  garbage, 
irrigation,  and  the  prevention  and  cure  of  disease;  such 
institutions  as  the  Eockefeller  Foundation,  which  has 
among  its  various  objects  the  search  for  cures  of  diseases; 
tuberculosis  sanitariums;  schools  for  the  feeble-minded, 
blind,  deaf,  and  epileptic;  the  building  of  hospitals  and 
the  spread  of  their  usefulness;  the  establishment  of  free 
dispensaries ;  the  extension  of  the  work  of  visiting  nurses 
and  probation  officers ;  the  building  of  social  settlements ; 
and  all  like  methods  of  removing  the  conditions  in  society, 
that  produce  poverty. 

2.  Our  educational  systems  should  be  improved,  so  as 
to  fit  better  for  both  the  production  and  consumption  of 
wealth.     The  entire  school  curriculum  should  be  better 
adapted  to  the  child  mind  and  to  social  needs.    Manual 
and  vocational  training  should  receive  greater  emphasis, 
and  girls  should  receive  more  effective  training  in  cook- 
ing, care  of  children,  and  household  management.     The 
educational  values  in  play  and  recreation  should  be  more 
widely  recognized,  and  more  adequate  facilities  for  the 
expenditure  of  leisure  time  be  provided. 

3.  The  worker  should  be  adequately  protected  against 
dangerous  machinery  and  unsanitary  conditions  in  fac- 
tories and  other  places  of  employment.    The  working  day 
should  not  be  so  long  that  the  worker's  physical  efficiency 
is  impaired. 

4.  A  number  of  measures  are  necessary  to  protect  and 
improve  the  worker's  standard  of  living.  A  better  method 
of  settling  industrial  disputes  should  be  devised,  so  as  to 
obviate  wage  losses  due  to  strikes  and  lockouts.  Monopoly 
profits  should  be  curbed,  and  prices  of  living  necessities 
regulated  by  public  authority,  where  necessary.    A  better 
system  of  marketing  foodstuffs  should  be  established  so 
as  to  do  away  with  unnecessary  middlemen.    Co-operativet 
stores    and    marketing    systems    should    be    encouraged. 
Minimum  wage  legislation  should  be  enacted  for  under- 
paid trades  which  the  unions  are  unable  to   organize. 
Business  and  industry  should  be  established  upon  more 
stable  foundations,  and  financial  panics  and  industrial 


484  Treatment  of  Poverty 

depressions  prevented.  The  labor  market  should  be  effec- 
tively organized  by  a  nation-wide  system  of  employment 
exchanges.  Other  measures  requisite  to  the  reduction 
of  unemployment  to  a  minimum  should  be  adopted. 

5.  A  comprehensive  system  of  social  insurance — cover- 
ing industrial  accidents,  occupational  diseases,  sick- 
ness, unemployment,  and  death  of  family  wage-earners 
— should  be  established  throughout  the  country.  The 
value  of  such  insurance  has  been  amply  demonstrated 
and  the  time  is  rapidly  arriving  for  the  general  adoption 
of  such  a  system  in  the  United  States. 

"While  poverty  can  never  be  abolished  entirely,  it  can 
be  eliminated  as  the  great  overshadowing  problem  that  it 
is  to-day.  There  will  always  be  those  who  cannot  stand 
on  their  own  feet,  no  matter  how  many  opportunities 
they  have ;  but  we  can  bring  about  a  state  of  affairs  when 
those  who  will  may  have  the  opportunity  not  only  of 
maintaining  themselves  but  of  bettering  their  position. 
At  least  we  ought  to  have  a  system  under  which  any- 
one who  is  able-bodied,  fairly  efficient,  and  equipped 
with  normal  intellect  will  be  able  not  only  to  support 
himself  and  family  but  to  bring  into  the  world  children 
who  will  have  equally  good  opportunities. 


BEADING  REFERENCES 

GILLIN.  JOHN  L.,  Poverty  and  Dependency,  Parts  III,  IV  and  V. 

WAENER,  A.  G.,  American  Charities,  Parts  II,  III  and  IV. 

DEVINE,  E.  T.,  Principles  of  Relief. 

HENDERSON,  C.  R.,  Modern  Methods  of  Charity. 

PARMELEE,  MAURICE,  Poverty  and  Social  Progress,  Part  III. 

HOLLANDER,  J.  H.,  Abolition  of  Poverty. 

FOWLE,  T.  W.,  The  Poor  Law. 

SMITH,  S.  G.,  Social  Pathology,  pp.  41-130. 

WEBB,  S.  AND  B.,  Prevention  of  Destitution. 

MANGOLD,  C.  B.,  Problems  of  Child  Welfare. 

RUBINOW,  I.  M.,  Social  Insurance. 

LEAKE,  A.  H.,  Industrial  Education. 

KING,  W.  L.  M.,  Industry  and  Humanity. 

DEVINE,  E.  T.,  Social  Work,  Parts  II,  III,  V,  and  VI. 

HOLDEN,  A.  C.,  The  Settlement  Idea. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
CRIME 

The  second  great  problem  of  maladjustment  confront- 
ing society  is  that  of  crime.  It  is  vitally  connected  with 
poverty  and  goes  hand  in  hand  with  it.  Poverty  produces 
and  is  the  product  of  crime.  Also,  conditions  of  crime  are 
interwoven  with  conditions  of  poverty.  When  we  touch 
one  we  generally  find  the  other.  By  this  we  do  not 
imply  that  the  poor  are  more  apt  to  be  criminal  than 
the  rich,  but  that  poverty  produces  crime  and  crime  pro- 
duces poverty  and  that  both  are  products  of  similar  con- 
ditions. 

What  Is  Crime? — Crime  is  the  violation  of  a  law  and  is 
not  necessarily  wrong-doing,  although  it  usually  is.  An 
act  may  be  evil  and  yet  not  criminal,  because  it  may 
violate  no  law.  Again  an  act  may  be  moral  and  altruistic 
and  yet  criminal,  even  punishable  with  death.  A  criminal 
is  one  who  breaks  a  law;  he  is  not  necessarily  an  evil- 
doer. He  is  frequently  a  benefactor  of  mankind ;  shining 
examples  are  Socrates,  Huss,  and  Christ,  all  of  whom 
were  executed  as  criminals.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of 
the  world's  greatest  malefactors  have  escaped  the  taint 
of  being  criminals,  for  they  violated  no  law.  Yet  while 
crime  is  primarily  a  legal  concept,  it  has  its  social  bear- 
ing as  well,  for  laws  are  the  result  of  public  opinion, 
and  an  act  cannot  be  considered  a  crime  unless  society 
puts  a  stamp  of  disapproval  upon  it.  A  crime  is  an  act 
that  society  has  condemned  and  upon  the  committing  of 
which  society  has  put  a  penalty.  Society,  however,  is 
continually  changing  its  mind  in  regard  to  what  it  con- 
siders as  harmful  or  advantageous.  What  is  a  crime 
to-day  may  not  be  one  to-morrow,  and  what  is  legal  to-day 
may  be  a  crime  to-morrow;  moreover,  what  is  legal  in 

485 


486  Crime 

the  United  States  may  be  a  crime  in  Germany — formerly 
lese-majeste  was  an  example  of  this.  Even  what  is  a  crime 
in  Massachusetts  may  not  be  such  in  South  Carolina, 
as  the  employment  of  child  labor,  for  instance.  So  crime 
differs  with  the  time  and  place;  yet  it  depends  upon 
public  opinion  for  its  definition.  Many  curious  examples 
may  be  given,  such  as  driving  with  reins,  once  a  crime 
in  Kussia.  Francis  I,  in  1635,  forbade  printing  in  France 
under  penalty  of  the  gallows.  The  lonians  condemned  to 
exile  those  never  seen  to  laugh.  The  Carthaginians  killed 
the  losing  general.  Spain  for  a  long  time  did  likewise 
to  a  commander  who  surrendered  an  army,  and  in 
accordance  with  this  principle  the  commander  who  made 
such  a  plucky  defense  at  Santiago  against  the  Americans 
had  to  stand  trial  for  his  life  upon  his  return  to  Spain, 
and  only  because  public  sentiment  had  changed  did  he 
escape  with  his  life.  By  the  Julian  Law  celibacy  was  a 
crime;  and  Sparta  stripped  and  scourged  her  confirmed 
bachelors  in  the  market  place  in  mid- winter. 

Law  generally  distinguishes  between  major  and  minor 
crimes;  the  former  are  termed  felonies  and  the  latter 
misdemeanors.  Not  only  are  punishments  graded  ac- 
cordingly, but  society  looks  upon  the  two  classes  in  a 
different  manner.  Also  special  privileges  are  accorded 
the  person  who  commits  a  misdemeanor  which  are  not 
allowed  to  the  felon. 

Different  Kinds  of  Criminals. — Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  classify  the  criminal  either  biologically  or 
psychologically,  and  many  ingenious  systems  have  been 
worked  out.  None  of  these  is  perfect,  and  yet  all  are 
suggestive,  The  following  scheme  is  given  for  its  sug- 
gestiveness,  and  is  one  of  the  best  yet  offered: 

(1)  The  Instinctive,  or  Born  Criminal. — This  class  is 
very  small,  furnishing  probably  not  over  five  per  cent 
of  our  criminal  population.    The  moral  imbecile — if  there 
is  such  a  person — is  a  good  example  of  this  type. 

(2)  The  Habitual  Criminal,  a  normal  person  with  a 
tendency  to  drift  into  crime,  a  tendency  acquired  because 
of  his  environment.    This  class  includes  the  professional 


Crime  487 

burglar  and  yeggman,  who  are  ranked  among  the  most 
desperate  of  criminals;  but  the  bulk  of  this  group  are 
weak  persons  who  are  not  able  to  resist  the  temptation, 
and  who  are  not  strong  enough  to  change  their  habits 
even  if  they  so  desire.  In  the  past,  society  has  made 
it  harder  for  them  to  reform,  because  of  its  ostracism  of 
the  man  with  a  criminal  record.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
habitual  criminals  comprise  from  thirty  to  forty  per  cent 
of  the  criminal  population. 

(3)  The  Single  Offender,  the  person  who  commits  a  crime 
from  impulse,  or  anger,  or  while  under  the  influence  of 
liquor.     One  of  the  greatest  faults  of  our  penal  system 
in  the  past  has  been  that  it  has  driven  this  type  of  casual 
offender  into  the  ranks  of  the  habitual  offender.     These 
people  are  criminals  more  in  the  legal  than  in  the  social 
sense,  for  very  often  the  provocation  is  so  great  that  the 
act  in  itself  might  be  very  justifiable  from  the  moral  or 
ethical  standpoint.    This  class,  it  is  estimated,  forms  from 
thirty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  our  prison  population;  it  is 
for  this  class  that  the  indeterminate  sentence,  probation, 
and  parole  are  especially  intended. 

(4)  Feeble-minded  and  Insane. — Such  should  never  be 
classified  under  the  head  of  criminals,  but  unfortunately 
a  heavy  percentage  of  our  prison  population  belongs  to 
one  or  the  other  of  these  two  classes.    As  we  shall  see 
in  a  later  chapter,  the  feeble-minded  fall  easily  into  crime, 
and  make  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  inmates  of  our 
prisons  and  reformatories,  especially  the  latter.     As  a 
rule  the  insane  are  sent  to  asylums,  but  some  go  to  prison. 

The  question  at  once  arises:  Shall  all  these  different 
classes  be  treated  alike,  even  when  the  offense  is  the 
same?  Naturally  we  say  no,  but  the  proper  differentia- 
tion of  treatment  is  another  problem. 

Extent  of  Crime. — As  to  the  exact  extent  of  crime  we 
have  no  trustworthy  figures.  We  have  statistics  giving 
the  number  of  prisoners  and  convictions  each  year,  but 
these  data  give  us  no  idea  of  the  number  of  crimes  com- 
mitted, for  many  crimes  are  never  detected  and,  even 
though  the  crimes  may  be  discovered,  many  offenders  are 


488  Crime 

not  caught.  Besides,  many  of  those  who  are  caught  are 
freed  by  our  courts,  even  when  guilty,  through  some  fault 
of  the  law  or  because  of  the  ability  of  the  defendant's 
counsel.  On  the  other  hand  sometimes  the  innocent 
are  convicted.  Many  are  also  put  on  probation  or  parole. 
So  prison  statistics  do  not  give  us  accurate  information 
on  the  subject.  Many  are  convicted  several  times  during 
the  year,  which  is  an  added  reason  why  there  are  no 
reliable  means  by  which  to  measure  the  extent  of  crime. 

In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  size  of  our  prison 
population,  a  few  figures  are  necessary;  but  because  of 
the  futility  and  small  value  of  such  statistics  only  a  few 
will  be  given.  In  the  2823  penal  institutions  in  the  United 
States  there  were,  in  January,  1910,  112,881  persons  serv- 
ing sentences,  or  about  one-eighth  of  one  per  cent  of  our 
population.  Of  these,  105,362  were  males  and  6136 
females:  52,473  were  native  whites;  19,438  were  foreign 
whites,  and  38,701  were  colored;  24,974  were  juvenile 
delinquents  serving  sentences  in  juvenile  reformatories. 
In  addition  to  these  there  should  be  added  those  on  parole 
and  on  probation.  During  the  year  1910  there  were  476,256 
commitments  to  these  penal  institutions,  or  about  one- 
half  of  one  per  cent  of  our  population.  This  does  not 
mean  that  only  that  number  of  persons  are  convicted 
each  year;  in  fact,  it  is  estimated  that  at  least  1,000,000 
are  convicted  of  some  offense  each  year,  and  the  dis- 
crepancy is  caused  by  the  great  numbers  of  offenders 
who  pay  fines,  escape  by  new  trials,  are  put  on  probation, 
die,  or  escape.  The  fact  that  1,000,000  persons  are  con- 
victed does  not  mean  that  only  1,000,000  crimes  are  com- 
mitted each  year,  for  a  vast  number  of  crimes  are  never 
detected,  especially  the  minor  offenses,  such  as  violation 
of  city  ordinances.  It  is  possibly  a  good  thing  that  many 
of  these  escape  detection,  for  the  majority  of  people 
commit  such  violations  almost  every  day  of  their  lives, 
sometimes  consciously  and  sometimes  unconsciously. 
But,  unfortunately,  too  many  serious  crimes  go  un- 
punished. The  Chicago  Tribune  has  for  years,  with  the 
help  of  the  Associated  Press,  kept  a  record  of  the  number 


Crime  489 

of  homicides.  These  run  between  six  and  ten  thousand 
each  year.  Yet  those  committed  to  prison  each  year 
for  homicide  amount  only  to  a  little  over  one-fourth  of 
that  number,  being  2444  for  1904,  as  against  8482 
homicides.  The  rest  are  not  caught,  not  convicted  if 
caught,  die,  or  escape.  The  largest  proportion  of  these 
homicides  occur  in  southern  and  western  states,  Texas 
leading  with  about  1000  each  year.  The  fact  that  so  many 
crimes  go  unpunished,  especially  after  the  criminal  is 
caught,  carries  a  serious  criticism  of  our  legal  procedure. 
Too  many  escape  conviction  through  taking  advantage 
of  legal  technicalities;  in  fact,  the  letter  of  the  law  is 
considered  more  than  the  spirit  of  it.  This  we  shall  see 
to  be  one  of  the  causes  of  crime,  especially  serious  crime, 
and  one  of  the  special  causes  of  the  increase  of  crime  in 
the  United  States. 

We  often  hear  the  question,  Is  crime  on  the  increase? 
If  we  examine  prison  statistics  we  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  it  is;  for  in  1860  our  prison  population  was  only 
19,086,  or  one  prisoner  to  every  1647,  and  in  1910  our 
prison  population  was  112,881,  or  one  prisoner  to  every 
801  of  the  general  population.  Moreover,  since  1860  we 
have  adopted  probation  and  parole  and  have  shortened 
sentences  a  great  deal.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  added 
to  the  list  of  crimes,  having  now  a  great  many  more  acts 
punishable  by  imprisonment.  Then  in  many  localities  we 
have  increased  our  police  efficiency.  So  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  form  any  definite  opinion.  There  is  no  ques- 
tion as  to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  petty  crimes  and 
misdemeanors,  such  as  the  breaking  of  city  ordinances, 
due  to  the  tremendous  increase  in  the  number  of  these 
laws.  But  when  it  comes  to  the  serious  crimes  like 
murder,  arson,  and  burglary,  we  are  not  so  certain.  The 
number  increases,  of  course,  but  whether  or  not  in  pro- 
portion to  the  growth  of  population  is  a  question.  Prison 
statistics  for  the  past  few  years  show  an  increase  in  these 
graver  offenses,  but  whether  this  is  in  part  due  to  greater 
efficiency  in  our  methods  of  detection  and  conviction  is 
a  question.  .Without  doubt  it  is  owing  partly  to  out 


490  Crime 

faulty  prison  systems  in  the  past,  as  well  as  to  the  lack 
of  fear  of  our  courts.  Ellwood1  believes  that  the  decrease 
in  both  grave  and  minor  crimes  in  England  has  been  due 
to  their  excellent  prison  system  and  to  the  quickness  and 
sureness  of  the  English  courts,  which  stand  in  striking 
contrast  to  our  slow,  clumsy,  and  inefficient  courts. 

Cost  of  Crime. — That  the  cost  of  crime  in  the  United 
States  is  tremendous  goes  without  challenge,  but  as  to 
exact  figures  we  again  have  nothing  definite;  at  best  we 
have  only  estimates.  As  to  the  probable  expense  to  the 
government  for  court  machinery,  police  protection, 
prisons,  and  general  repression  of  crime,  we  can  make 
a  fairly  good  estimate.  This  is  generally  placed  around 
$200,000,000  a  year,  but  to  this  must  be  added  the 
destruction  of  property,  cost  of  protection  to  individuals, 
and  loss  of  time  to  the  public  at  large — altogether 
aggregating  probably  twice  the  amount  of  the  actual 
governmental  cost.  Mr.  Eugene  Smith,2  a  New  York 
lawyer,  estimates  that  there  are  about  250,000  dangerous 
criminals  in  the  United  States,  and  that  each  costs  the 
country  about  $1600  annually,  on  an  average,  or  a  total 
of  about  $400,000,000.  This  would  make  a  total  cost  of 
$600,000,000,  which  is  the  annual  cost  of  our  public  school 
system,  or  over  one-half  the  value  of  our  bumper  wheat 
crop  of  1915.  This  estimate  may,  of  course,  be  high; 
yet  the  cost  of  crime  is  tremendous  in  this  country, 
probably  not  so  great  as  that  of  poverty,  yet  an  amount 
well  worthy  of  our  attention.  A  study  of  this  problem 
would  not  be  thorough  unless  we  took  up  its  causes. 

Causes  of  Crime. — As  with  poverty,  we  shall  find  that 
the  causes  of  crime  are  interlocking  and  cumulative,  and 
also  difficult  to  separate  and  study;  although  they  are 
easier  to  trace  than  are  those  of  poverty.  We  shall  first 
study  the  objective  causes,  or  those  outside  the  individual, 
and  then  the  subjective,  or  causes  pertaining  to  the  indi- 
vidual. We  might  also  suggest  three  conditions  of  crime : 
(1)  motive  for  the  crime;  (2)  opportunity  to  commit 

1  Ellwood,  Charles  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problem,  p.  319. 

2  Paper  read  before  the  National  Prison  Association  in  1900. 


Crime  491 

crime;  and  (3)  absence  of  opposition  or  restraint.     The 
first  two  are  positive,  and  the  last  one  negative. 

Objective  Causes  of  Crime. — Under  this  head  come  the 
causes  due  to  physical  and  social  environment. 

1.  Physical  Environment. — Climate  has  a  great  deal  to 
do  with  the  nature  of  crime,  and  also  its  extent.     We 
find  that  crimes  against  the  person,  such  as  murder  or 
assault,  are  much  more  frequent  in  hot  climates  than  in 
cold,  not  only  because  of  the  greater  excitability  of  the 
individual,  but  also  because  life  is  held  cheaper  in  warm 
than  in  cold  regions,  as  it  is  easier  to  rear  and  support 
large  families.     Then,  too,  the  death-rate  being  higher, 
people  living  in  warm  climates  are  more  accustomed  to 
seeing  death  and  grow  more  hardened  to  it.     The  same 
is  found  true  in  regard  to   seasons,  there  being  more 
crimes  against  the  person  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold. 
On  the  contrary,  we  find  that  crimes  against  property 
increase  with  cold  weather,  being  much  more  serious  in 
winter  than  in  summer.     The  temptation  increases  with 
cold  weather:  the  demand  for  food,  clothes,  and  shelter 
grows  greater,  as  the  opportunity  of  providing  them  be- 
comes less;  hence  a  resort  to  unlawful  measures  follows. 
Every  winter  we  find  newspapers  calling  attention  to  the 
so-called  "crime  wave"  that  is  sweeping  their  city  or 
the  country.    The  same  situation  does  not,  however,  hold 
true  in  regard  to  climates,  for  the  inhabitants  of  Africa, 
Central  America,  and  other  warm  climates  are  noted  for 
their  thieving  habits.     But  this  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  northern  countries  have  stabler  governments. 

2.  Social  Environment. — The  causes  included  under  this 
heading  are  much  more  important,  and  at  the  same  time 
much  harder  to  separate  and  analyze,  than  those  due  to 
physical  environment.     These  come  under  several  heads. 

(1)  Family  Demoralization. — In  our  treatment  of 
divorce,  we  found  that  the  breaking  up  of  the  family, 
produced,  among  other  things,  juvenile  delinquency. 
Again  in  our  discussion  of  poverty  we  found  that  the 
children  of  parents  who  are  obliged  to  be  away  from 
home  to  work  are  thrown  out  upon  the  street  to  shift  for 


492  Crime 

themselves.  This  naturally  leads  to  delinquency  and 
crime.  We  found  also  that  the  inmates  of  the  reform 
schools  and  children  coming  before  the  juvenile  courts 
come  from  the  homes  that  are  broken  up  or  demoralized 
by  family  troubles  and  by  poverty;  in  fact,  between 
eighty-five  and  ninety  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the 
reform  schools  come  from  disorganized  homes.  Dependent 
children  drift  into  crime  for  the  same  reasons.  Illegiti- 
mate children  are  still  more  prone  to  commit  crime,  for 
not  only  are  they  subject  to  all  such  temptations,  but  they 
are  shunned  by  society.  Domestic  troubles  also  con- 
tribute to  the  crime  of  adults  as  well,  for  if  the  home 
is  not  happy,  the  tendency  is  to  drift  to  the  saloon,  dance 
hall,  and  gambling  table.  The  majority  of  prisoners  in 
the  United  States  are  unmarried — sixty-four  per  cent  in 
1904 — but  this  is  partly  the  result  of  crime,  the  inmates 
spending  so  much  time  in  prison  that  the  opportunity 
of  marrying  is  limited.  The  life  of  crime  does  not  allow 
one  to  settle  down;  it  keeps  the  criminal  constantly  on 
the  move.  On  the  other  hand,  family  life  has  its  steadying 
effect  on  the  individual,  especially  if  that  family  life  is 
happy. 

(2)  Poverty. — We  have  already  seen  that  poverty  and 
crime  go  hand  in  hand.  Poverty  increases  temptation, 
incites  dissatisfaction  with  government,  and  breeds  a  con- 
tempt for  law  and  order,  arising  from  the  belief  that 
government  protects  merely  the  wealthy,  and  that  the 
law  was  made  for  the  rich  man  and  not  for  the  poor. 
When  a  man  has  a  family  that  is  in  dire  need,  and  when 
he  at  the  same  time  cannnot  get  employment  or  earn  a 
living  wage,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  reason  for  such  a 
line  of  thinking.  Poverty  tends  to  discourage,  and  thus 
often  leads  to  crime.  Of  course  poverty  does  not  inevi- 
tably result  in  crime,  but  it  intensifies  the  temptation 
and  so  increases  crime — that  is,  if  the  poverty  is  extreme. 
People  are  continually  wanting  things,  and  if  they  can- 
not get  them  legally  they  frequently  are  not  strong 
enough  to  withstand  the  temptation  to  get  them  illegally. 
This  is  seen  even  among  well-to-do  and  people  of  means. 


Crime  493 

Lack  of  work,  rise  in  cost  of  food,  etc.,  generally  increase 
crime. 

(3)  Maladjustment     of    Industry. — Strikes,    lockouts, 
periods  of  depression,  financial  crises,  and  changes  in 
industry  destabilize  conditions  and  lead  to  violence  and 
crime.     This  is  especially  true  in  times  of  strikes  and 
lockouts,  when  both  sides  lose  control  of  themselves  and 
resort  to  violence;  then  destruction  of  property,  blows, 
and  even  murder  are  the  result.    To  the  list  of  contribut- 
ing causes  might  be  added  low  wages,  child  labor,  long 
hours  of  work,  and  the  like. 

(4)  Density   of  Population. — We  find  more   crime  in 
cities  than  in  rural  districts,  not  because  people  in  cities 
are  naturally  criminal — for  they  are  not — but  because 
temptation  is  greater,  and  there  is  greater  opportunity 
to  commit  crime.    Criminals  go  from  the  small  towns  and 
rural  districts  to  the  centers  of  population  in  order  to 
avoid  detection.     Because  of  this,  about  twice  as  great 
a  percentage  of  crime  is  committed  in  cities  as  in  the 
country.     The  " flops"  of  Chicago  are  favorite  hiding 
places  of  criminals;  so  are  the  "east  side''  of  New  York, 
the  "east  side"  of  London,  and  the  "north    end"    of 
Kansas  City. 

(5)  Defective  Courts  and  Penal  System. — The  fact  that 
many  offenders  escape  punishment  creates  a  disregard  for 
law.     Severity  of  punishment  never  deters,  for  everyone 
is  egotistic  enough  to  think  that  if  anyone  can  escape 
he  can.     What  does  deter  is  certainty  of  detection  and 
punishment,  even  if  the  punishment  be  light.     The  fact 
that   so   many  slip   through   our  courts  advertise   their 
inefficiency.    Bungling  methods  of  handling  the  prisoner 
after  he  is  sentenced  increase  crime,  for  instead  of  work- 
ing towards  reformation,  as  a  prison  should  do,  it  has 
in  the  past  hardened  the  offender.  Allowing  first  offenders 
to  associate  with  hardened  criminals,  especially  in  the 
county  jails,  makes  criminals  out  of  otherwise  law-abiding 
persons.    Also  the  difficulty  and  uncertainty  of  securing 
justice  and  the  dependence  of  a  verdict  upon  the  side  of 
the  largest  pocketbook  cause  people  to  lose  confidence  in 


494  Crime 

courts.  Corruption  and  graft  among  police  systems 
hinder  the  stamping  out  of  crime.  Policemen  are,  as  a 
result  of  connivance  on  the  part  of  superiors,  afraid  to 
arrest  noted  violators  of  the  law.  Short  sentences  in 
county  jails  are  likely  to  increase  instead  of  prevent  crime. 

(6)  Defective  Law  and  Government. — This  cause  works 
in  much  the  same  way  as  the  preceding  one.    Allowing 
bad  social  conditions  to  exist  often  lies  at  the  root  of 
the  whole  matter.    Laws  such  as  those  licensing  saloons 
create  crime.    Laws  which  impose  heavier  penalties  upon 
certain  classes  than  others,  or  disproportionate  penalties 
for  minor  offenses,  encourage  disrespect  for  law.     Laws 
which  are  poorly  drawn  up  are  responsible  for  defective 
courts,   or  for  the  inability  of  courts  to  enforce  their 
verdicts.    Poor  administration  of  law  by  lax  or  inefficient 
officials,  such  as  are  often  found  in  city  governments, 
fosters  crime  and  in  truth  almost  puts  a  premium  upon  it. 

(7)  Race  and  Nationality. — In  our  study  of  immigra- 
tion we  found  that  certain  races  are  more  addicted  to 
crime  than  others.  We  learned  that  the  Poles  are  addicted 
to   the   use   of  liquor   and   under  its   influence   become 
dangerous  and   commit  many  serious  assaults;   that   the 
Irish  under  the  same  influence  commit  minor  offenses; 
that  the  Italians  were  in  past  years  controlled  by  the 
"Black  Hand."     The  American  Hegro  likewise  is  espe- 
cially addicted  to  petty  thefts  and  minor  offenses.  Many 
nationalities  are  noted  for  their  high  criminal  rate,  par- 
ticularly those  of  eastern  Asia  and  Central  and  South 
America. 

(8)  Education,  or  Lack  of  It. — Although  an  educated 
"crook"  is.  much  more  dangerous  than  an  uneducated 
one,  the  educated  person  is  much  less  liabfe  to  become  a 
criminal.     In  fact  it  is  found  that  few  inmates  of  the 
ordinary  prison  have  much  education.     Not  only  is  the 
percentage  of  illiteracy  high  among  criminals,  but  those 
who  can  read  and  write  have  less  education  than  the 
average  man,  the  majority  stopping  school  long  before 
they  finish  the  grades — before  they  receive  enough  in- 
struction to  become  really  efficient  at  anything.    This  is 


Crime  495 

especially  true  of  the  major  offenders,  where  the  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  is  about  double  that  of  the  general 
population.  Education  not  only  gives  efficiency  but  also 
teaches  respect  for  law  and  keeps  the  child  off  the  streets 
or  out  of  temptation  during  the  years  in  which  character 
is  being  formed.  While  the  best  educational  system  pos- 
sible will  not  stop  crime,  it  will  go  a  long  way  towards 
checking  it.  If  an  educational  system  is  defective  and 
does  not  serve  its  true  purpose,  crime  will  increase  faster 
than  it  otherwise  would.  If  it  omits  moral  instruction, 
physical  education,  or  industrial  training,  it  is  to  that 
extent  defective.  One  needs  a  sound  body  to  be  moral, 
and  a  chance  to  succeed  in  life  to  be  law-abiding.  An 
educational  system  that  will  make  the  child  hate  learn- 
ing will  encourage  that  child  to  leave  school  at  as  early 
an  age  as  possible,  and  will  kill  the  influence  of  the 
school.  The  extension  of  such  enlightened  methods  as 
those  of  the  Gary  school  will  tend  to  keep  down  crime. 
Also,  the  providing  of  special  schools  for  the  dull  and 
the  precocious  children  will  have  the  same  effect. 

Along  with  the  school  in  its  educational  effect  must  be 
considered  the  public  libraries,  the  magazines,  and  espe- 
cially the  press.  The  space  given  to  crimes,  immorality 
and  divorce  cases  in  our  newspapers  advertises  those 
things  and  teaches  people  to  imitate  them.  Newspapers 
often  open  up  ways  to  crime  by  suggesting  plans  of  opera- 
tion ;  they  attract  attention  to  crime  and  arouse  dormant 
criminal  tendencies. 

(9)  Harmful  Social  Amusements. — The  lack  of  health- 
ful amusements  drives  people,  especially  the  poor,  who 
have  not  the  means  to  choose  anything  else,  to  the  saloon, 
the  pool  hall,  the  dance  hall,  the  gambling  house,  vulgar 
theatrical  performances,  and  similar  places  of  entertain- 
ment. Such  amusements  encourage  vice  and  crime.  This 
is  being  counteracted  now  by  the  substitution  of  healthful 
amusement:  free  parks  in  our  cities  with  their  baseball, 
football,  and  basketball  grounds,  tennis  courts,  golf 
links,  bathing  beaches,  skating  rinks,  and  gymnasiums. 
The  moving  picture  is  driving  the  vulgar  theatrical  show 


496  Crime 

out  of  business,  and  if  it  can  be  controlled  so  as  to 
eliminate  the  low  and  sensational,  it  will  have  an  uplift- 
ing effect,  and  do  its  share  in  furnishing  healthful 
diversion.  Probably  no  stronger  check  to  crime  could 
be  instituted  than  furnishing  the  public  with  clean,  health- 
ful sport  and  amusement. 

Subjective  Causes  of  Crime. — These  are  largely  biolog- 
ical and  are  sometimes  conditions  attending  crime  rather 
than  causes  of  it. 

1.  Degeneracy,  Physical,   Mental,  and  Moral. — Feeble- 
mindedness, insanity,  and  epilepsy  are  closely  related  to 
crime.     The  person  who  is  weak  is  the  person  who  gets 
into    trouble.      It    is   the    same   in   college;    the   student 
who  will  cheat  in  examinations  or  copy  someone  else's 
work  is  a  weakling  who  is  not  strong  enough  to  resist 
temptation,   or  who  has  not  the  mental  ability  or  will 
power  to  work  the  matter  out  for  himself.     The  person 
who  aids  him  in  this  way  is  also  one  who  is  not  strong 
enough  to  say  "no."    It  is  the  same  with  drinking  and 
smoking  cigarettes — it  is  usually  the  weakling  who  takes 
up  those  habits,  the  one  who  is  not  man  enough  to  resist 
them.    Likewise  with  crime — the  feeble-minded  or  weak- 
willed  person  is  not  able  to  withstand  temptation.    It  is 
asserted   that    in   the   prisons,    where   studies    in   regard 
to    mental   capacity   have   been   made,    fully    one-fourth 
of  the  inmates  are  feeble-minded.    One  has  only  to  visit 
a  penitentiary  to  recognize  that  the  majority    of    the 
prisoners  are  under  normal  or  peculiar.     They  are  also 
below  normal  physically.     Criminals  are  drawn  largely 
from  the  lowest  strata  of  society,  from  the  scum  and  riff- 
raff.   Criminals,  paupers,  imbeciles,  drunkards,  prostitutes, 
and  other  degenerates  come,  to  a  great  extent,  from  the 
same    family    stocks.      One    needs    only    to    study    the 
Jukes,  Kallikak,  Nam,  and  Hill  families  to  realize  this. 
While  not  all  criminals  are  degenerate,  a  much  larger 
percentage  is  found  among  them  than  in  the  ordinary 
population. 

2.  Intemperance,  or  Drunkenness. — Intemperance  is  in 


Crime  497 

part  an  objective  cause,  but  should  be  classified  here. 
It  has  been  stated  on  good  authority  that  between  ninety 
and  ninety-five  per  cent  of  crime  in  the  United  States 
in  the  past  was  related  in  some  way  or  other  to  the  use  of 
liquor,  and  that  fully  one-half  of  the  crime  committed 
was  the  direct  result  of  liquor.  Since  the  advent  of 
prohibition  many  empty  jails  testify  to  the  truth  of 
such  statements.  One  does  things  under  the  influ- 
ence of  liquor  which  he  or  she  would  not  do  other- 
wise. Liquor  weakens  the  will  and  reduces  the  power 
of  resistance.  It  influences  the  addict  in  a  myriad  of 
other  ways.  With  liquor  might  be  classified  drugs  and 
opiates. 

One  interesting  feature  of  the  effect  of  prohibition  upon 
crime  has  been  the  increased  difficulty  of  capturing  and 
convicting  the  professional  criminals,  for  their  abstinence 
from  liquor,  coupled  with  their  use  of  the  automobile, 
gives  them  a  better  chance  of  escape. 

3.  Age. — Most  criminals  are  young — between  the  ages 
of  twenty  and  forty  as  a  rule.     In  fact,  the  average  of 
those  confined  in  the  penitentiaries  is  about  twenty-seven 
or  twenty-eight.    The  reason  for  this  is  apparent :  crimes 
are  committed  during  the  active  period  of  life,  when  a 
person  is  physically  at  his  best.    Later  in  life  if  the  person 
has  not  died  or  reformed  he  loses  his  nerve  and  settles 
down  and  acts  as  a  "fence"  for  younger  criminals.    The 
life  of  the  criminal  is  hazardous,  and  many  die  young. 

4.  Sex. — In  the  United  States  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the 
criminals  are  men.    In  Europe  the  percentage  of  women 
is  somewhat  higher,  but  in  all  countries  male  criminals 
greatly  outnumber  the  female.    This  is  not  all  due  to  the 
fact  that  man  is  naturally  more  criminal,  but  partly  to  the 
fact  that  women,  when  they  want  crimes  committed,  get 
men  to  act  for  them.    The  women  are  weaker  physically 
and  lack  the   courage  to   commit  crime,   especially  the 
graver  offenses.     They  are  apt  to  commit  misdemeanors 
and  minor  offenses  which  do  not  come  within  the  pale 
of  the  law.     Perhaps  still  more  important,  women  are 


498  Crime 

much  less  vigorously  prosecuted  in  court  than  men.  If 
in  need  women  are  more  apt  to  be  driven  into  prostitution 
than  into  theft.  Moreover,  there  are  in  the  United  States 
about  two  millions  more  men  than  women.  However,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  woman  is  more  conservative  and 
more  willing  to  obey  the  law,  than  man.  She  is  much  more 
accustomed  to  obey  and  spends  more  time  at  home.  Girls 
are  looked  after  much  more  carefully  than  boys,  hence 
know  less  of  crime. 

5.  Habits,    Sentiments,    and    Ideals. — Acquired    traits 
may  be  traced  back,  at  least  in  part,  to  objective  causes, 
yet  they  must  be  considered  here  also.     Many  of  them 
have    been   developed    by   the    "gang,"    and    by    home 
environment  as  well.     Such  habits  and  ideals  are  not 
created  suddenly  but  are  the  results  of  bad  social  environ- 
ment.   They  show  imitation  of  the  bad  rather  than  of  the 
good  actions  of  society. 

6.  Sexual   Passions. — The   animal   passions   cause   such 
crimes  as  rape,  seduction,  and  assault,  and  even  lead  to 
other  crimes,  such  as  murder  and  arson. 

Criminal  Psychology. — A  great  deal  has  been  written 
about  criminal  psychology,  yet  the  bulk  of  this  discussion 
deals  with  abnormalities  of  mind  found  in  the  criminal. 
Although  such  studies  are  extremely  interesting  and 
suggestive,  they  seldom  bring  us  to  any  definite  con- 
clusion. But  the  subject  cannot  be  adequately  treated 
in  a  work  as  brief  as  this,  and  therefore  must  be  left  to 
special  treatises  on  criminology.  In  this  connection  we 
may,  however,  call  attention  to  the  theories  of  Lombroso 
and  the  investigations  of  Goring. 

Italian  School  of  Criminal  Anthropology. — About  1875 
there  came  into  prominence  in  Italy  a  school  of  criminolo- 
gists,  known  as  the  Italian  School  of  Criminal  Anthropolo- 
gists, headed  by  Cesare  Lombroso,  who  took  the  position 
that  crime  was  largely  due  to  atavism,  or  the  reversion 
to  savage  or  animal  types.  This  school  postulated  that 
there  was  a  more  or  less  definite  criminal  type,  and  that 
individuals  of  this  type  could  be  distinguished  from 
ordinary  persons  because  of  certain  physical  and  mental 


Crime  499 

peculiarities.  It  proceeded  from  the  principle  that  there 
is  an  intimate  relation  between  bodily  and  mental  con- 
ditions and  processes ;  and  in  accordance  with  this  theory, 
Lombroso  began  an  examination  of  the  physical  char- 
acteristics and  peculiarities  of  the  criminal  offender.  He 
demonstrated  that  as  a  rule  the  criminal,  particularly 
the  habitual  criminal,  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
average  members  of  society  by  a  much  higher  percentage 
of  physical  anomalies  in  the  way  of  malformations  of  the 
skull,  face,  brain,  and  sense  organs,  such  as  hafe-lips, 
high  palates,  and  bad  teeth;  also  by  such  personal 
irregularities  as  excessive  length  of  limbs  and  sexual 
peculiarities,  notably  feminism  in  men  and  masculinism 
in  women.  He  also  discovered  mental  anomalies  like 
nervousness,  morbidness,  excessive  vanity,  irritability, 
love  of  revenge,  and,  in  short,  habits  akin  to  those  of 
uncivilized  tribes.  He  regarded  the  criminal  as  a  product 
of  pathological  and  atavistic  tendencies  standing  mid- 
way between  the  lunatic  and  the  savage. 

There  has  been  much  opposition  to  this  theory  on  the 
ground  that  these  peculiarities  belong  also  to  the  insane, 
the  epileptic,  the  victim  of  alcoholism,  the  prostitute,  and 
the  habitual  pauper,  as  well  as  to  the  criminal,  and  that 
the  criminal  is  only  one  branch  of  a  decadent  stem,  or 
one  member  of  a  degenerate  family  group.  Lombroso 
and  his  followers,  especially  Ferri,  went  so  far  as  to  try 
to  separate  the  criminal  class  into  different  types,  each 
distinguishable  by  certain  physical  and  mental  peculiari- 
ties, and  to  contend  that  certain  physical  anomalies 
indicate  certain  criminal  tendencies.  While  the  theories 
of  Lombroso  are  interesting  and  suggestive,  they  have 
been  discarded  as  unscientific.  Without  question  the 
peculiarities  he  emphasizes  do  to  some  extent  exist,  but 
they  are  rather  effects  of  criminal  life  than  causes  of 
it.  The  fact  that  the  criminal  comes,  in  a  large  number 
of  cases,  from  the  degenerate  portion  of  our  population 
(as  is  especially  pointed  out  by  Goring)  would  naturally 
lead  us  to  expect  a  much  heavier  percentage  of  physical 
and  mental  failings  and  peculiarities. 


500  Crime 

Investigations  of  Goring. — Goring  in  his  study  of 
300,000  English  convicts  contends  that  criminality  is  not 
a  morbid  state  like  a  disease,  which  can  be  diagnosed  and 
prescribed  for;  that  criminals  possess  no  physical  or 
mental  characteristics  which  are  not  shared  by  all  people ; 
and  that  there  are  no  physical  or  mental  peculiarities  or 
characteristics  common  to  all  criminals.  Yet  he  admits 
that  criminals  as  a  class  are  generally  defective,  both 
physically  and  mentally,  and  points  out  further  that 
thieves  and  burglars,  who  make  up  ninety  per  cent  of 
the  criminals,  are  inferior  to  the  general  population  (and 
even  to  other  criminals),  not  because  they  are  criminals, 
but  because  they  are  drawn  from  the  lowest  social  strata. 

Goring 's  investigations  disprove  Lombroso's  theory  of 
a  criminal  type,  and  also  his  claim  that  it  is  possible  to 
distinguish  between  the  different  classes  of  criminals. 
Goring  shows  that  differences  do  exist  among  criminals, 
but  precisely  as  they  do  among  normal  persons.  He  does, 
however,  arrive  at  some  general  conclusions,  as  follows:3 

(1)  There  is  no  relation  between  sickness  and  crime. 
Lawbreakers  enjoy  better  health  if  anything,  than  the 
law-abiding.     Also  mortality  from  accidental  negligence 
and  from  infectious  fevers  and  similar  diseases  is  reduced 
by  prison  confinement. 

(2)  There  is   a   high   degree  of  relationship   between 
crime  and  insanity,  although  crime  is  not  a    cause    of 
insanity. 

(3)  Epilepsy  has  a  definite  relationship  to  crime. 

(4)  Alcoholism  plays  an  important  part  and  is  a  cause 
of  the  high  mortality  rate  of  criminals  and  of  the  prev- 
alence of  alcoholic  diseases. 

(5)  There  is  a  close  relationship  between  sexual  looseness 
and  crime,  and  this  explains  the  prevalence  of  syphilis 
among  criminals. 

(6)  Chronic  diseases,  instead  of  causing  crime,  are  a 
deterrent,  as  they  prevent  the  person  from  pursuing  a 
criminal  career. 

(7)  The  death-rate  among  criminals  is  about  the  same 
1  Goring,  Charles,  The  English  Convict. 


Crime  501 

as  in  the  respective  classes  of  society  from  which  the 
criminals  come. 

(8)  Although   criminals   come   from   the  most   prolific 
stock  in  the  community,  they  themselves  have  fewer  chil- 
dren than  the  average;  as  illustration,  of  the   general 
population  in  England  621  out  of  1000  marry  and  have 
on    an    average    5.66    children;    while    of    criminals    629 
out  of  1000  marry  and  have  3.5  children,  or  a  ratio  of 
5  to  8.    This  is  due  not  to  sterility  but  to  the  breaking 
up  of  the  homes,  desertion  of  family,  and  the  interruption 
of  family  life.     It  is  shown  that  fertility  decreases  with 
the  frequency  of  incarceration,  and  that  habitual  crimi- 
nals are  more  inclined  to  be  bachelors.    In  other  words, 
marital  conditions  are  much  the  same  as  we  should  expect 
to  find. 

(9)  Heredity. — The  tendency  to  crime  is  inherited  in 
about  the  same  degree  as  other  qualities  of  men.     The 
influence   of  parental  example  is  considerable,  varying 
with  conditions. 

In  the  conclusion  of  his  English  Convict  Goring  sums  up 
as  follows: 

"The  physical  and  mental  constitutions  of  both 
criminal  and  law-abiding  persons  of  the  same  age, 
stature,  class,  and  intelligence  are  identical.  There  is 
no  such  thing  as  an  anthropological  criminal  type.  Yet 
in  spite  of  this  it  appears  to  be  an  indisputable  fact 
that  there  is  a  physical,  mental,  and  moral  type  of 
normal  persons,  who  tend  to  be  convicted  of  crime. 
That  is  to  say,  the  criminal  of  English  prisons  is 
markedly  differentiated  by  defective  physique  as 
measured  by  stature  and  bodily  weight;  by  defective 
mental  capacity  and  by  a  possession  of  willful  anti-social 
proclivities.  The  thief  has  a  smaller,  narrower  head 
than  the  policeman  who  arrests  him,  not  because  he  is 
a  thief  but  because  he  is  inferior.  One-thirteenth  of 
the  persons  in  England  are  at  some  time  convicted, 
and  if  all  had  to  pass  by  in  groups  of  thirteen  and  the 
poorest-looking,  physically  and  mentally,  were  picked 


502  Crime 

from  each  group  this  new  group  would  correspond  to 
the  prison  type.  That  there  lies  in  the  physical  con- 
stitution the  existence  of  a  peculiar  psychic  power  by 
which  one  was  liable  to  become  a  criminal  was  the  old 
theory.  The  new  idea  is  that  he  is  not  born  a  criminal 
but  made  one.  We  find  close  bonds  between  defective 
physique  and  defective  mentality.  Alcoholic  diseases, 
like  the  venereal  ones,  are  determinants  of  crime.  But 
we  are  not  able  to  establish  any  definite  relationship 
between  crime  and  such  social  conditions  as  parental 
neglect,  poverty,  etc.  .  .  .  Imprisonment  does  not 
materially  affect  the  health  of  the  criminal,  whose 
health  is  about  the  same  as  when  outside." 


PARMELEE,  MAURICE,  Criminology. 

WINES,  F.  H.,  Punishment  and  Reformation,  Chaps.  I,  II,  XII. 

FERRI,  ENRICO,  Criminal  Sociology. 

LOMBROSO,  CESARE,  Crime,  Its  Causes  and  Remedies. 

LOMBROSO,  CESARE,  The  Female  Offender. 

HEALY,  WILLIAM,  The  Individual  Delinquent. 

GROSS,  HANS,  Criminal  Psychology. 

TARDE,  G.,  Penal  Philosophy. 

BONGER,  W.  A.,  Criminality  and  Economic  Conditions. 

KELLOR,  F.,  Experimental  Sociology;  Delinquents. 

McDONALD,  A.,  Criminal  Sociology. 

ELLIS,  H.,  The  Criminal. 

ROBINSON,  L.  N.,  History  and  Organization  of  Criminal  Statistics 

in  the  United  States. 
TRAVIS,  THOMAS,   The  Young  Malefactor,  a  Study   in  Juvenile 

Delinquency. 
HAYES,   E.  C.,  Introduction  to   the  Study  of  Sociology,   Chap. 

XXXII. 
ELLWOOD,     C.     A.,    Sociology    and    Modern    Social    Problems, 

Chap.  XIV. 
GORING,  CHARLES,  The  English  Convict. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
TREATMENT  OF  THE  CRIMINAL 

In  the  early  history  of  crime  the  criminal  was  treated 
according  to  the  principle  of  revenge.  This  theory  was 
supplanted  by  that  of  repression,  or  the  attempt  to  stamp 
out  crime.  In  turn,  this  idea  has  given  way  to  the 
principle  of  reformation,  which  now  is  being  combined 
with,  and  supplanted  more  and  more  by,  that  of  pre- 
vention, or  the  preventing  of  crime  before  it  is  committed. 
While  no  time  limits  can  be  stated  as  to  the  prevalence  of 
these  different  theories,  this  is  the  order  of  their  evolution, 
and  in  that  order  we  shall  study  them. 

1.  Theory  of  Revenge. — The  "tooth  for  a  tooth"  and 
"eye  for  an  eye"  idea  was  merely  an  illustration  of  the 
theory  of  revenge  which  for  centuries  governed  the  treat- 
ment of  criminals.  The  laws  or  rules  of  society  allowed 
the  person  injured,  or  his  relatives,  to  obtain  revenge 
on  the  person  who  committed  the  injury.  The  "blood 
avenger"  of  the  Old  Testament  was  a  person  given  this 
power.  Sometimes  the  person  who  committed  the  injury 
became  the  slave  of  the  injured  person  for  a  stated  period 
of  time  or  for  life.  The  despoiler  of  the  Roman  home  was 
turned  over  to  the  angry  husband  to  treat  as  he  saw  fit. 
Punishment  was  retaliation;  the  aim  was  to  make  the 
offender  suffer  in  payment  for  the  suffering  he  had  caused. 
As  long  as  revenge  was  the  governing  motive,  punish- 
ments were  generally  death,  mutilation,  torture,  whip- 
ping, and  slavery ;  one  shudders  even  to  read  the  accounts 
of  the  punishments  of  antiquity.  Human  ingenuity  was 
taxed  to  its  utmost  to  invent  tortures  and  methods  of 
execution  by  which  death  would  be  as  long  drawn  out 
as  possible  and  the  unhappy  wretch  made  to  suffer  to 
the  limit  of  his  endurance.  Crucifixion,  applying  the  boot, 
impaling,  flaying,  burning,  sawing  asunder,  boiling  in 

503 


504  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

oil,  burying  alive,  breaking  on  the  wheel,  whipping  with 
the  knout,  drawing  and  quartering,  and  starvation,  were 
typical  punishments.  For  minor  offenses  lesser  punish- 
ments, such  as  branding,  mutilating,  and  flogging,  were 
inflicted.  The  theory  was  that  not  only  was  it  good  to 
make  people  suffer  for  their  wrongs,  but  the  sight  of  their 
suffering  prevented  others  from  committing  the  same 
offenses.  This  theory  gradually  gave  place  to  the  idea 
that  there  was  a  more  or  less  definite  criminal  class,  and 
that  it  was  the  duty  of  society  to  put  it  down  or  stamp 
it  out  of  existence;  this  led  to  the  next  period  which  we 
shall  consider. 

2.  Theory  of  Repression. — The  period  in  which  the 
theory  of  repression  prevailed  was  hardly  less  bloody 
than  the  preceding  one,  except  that  death  was  not  so  cruelly 
inflicted.  Thinking  that  there  was  a  criminal  class  and 
being  alarmed  over  the  increase  of  crime,  the  public  took 
upon  itself  the  work  of  ridding  society  of  the  criminals. 
Death  was  made  the  penalty  for  nearly  all  crimes,  over 
two  hundred  offenses  being  punishable  by  death  in  England 
at  one  time,  and  over  one  hundred  in  France.  A  French 
jutfge  at  Nancy  boasted  of  burning  over  eight  hundred 
persons  in  sixteen  years,  and  Judge  Jeffreys  made  his 
name  infamous  by  his  perseverance  in  the  carrying  out 
of  what  he  considered  his  duty  by  sentencing  to  death 
every  one  whom  he  possibly  could.  Seventy-two  thousand 
were  hanged  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  a  period 
of  thirty-eight  years.  The  world  finally  grew  tired  of 
the  shedding  of  blood  and  substituted  banishment  and 
transportation  for  many  offenses.  Penal  colonies  were 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  including 
Australia,  the  Carolinas,  and  Georgia.  America  for  a 
long  time  received  a  large  number  of  the  criminals  of 
Europe.  Branding  was  abolished  and  torture  disappeared. 

These  penalties  did  not  fit  into  the  scheme  of  repres- 
sion, although  they  were  long  employed  to  intimidate  the 
people;  but  the  public  finally  saw  that  such  penalties 
did  not  stop  crime,  that  seeing  people  suffer  did  not  deter 
others  from  committing  crime,  but  on  the  contrary  in- 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  505 

creased  it.  Then,  too,  repression  did  not  prevent  crime; 
the  world  was  breeding  crime  faster  than  it  could  harvest 
the  criminals.  For  every  criminal  that  it  executed,  the 
world  was  bringing  into  existence  another,  and  usually 
more  than  one,  to  take  his  place.  Property  was  unequally 
distributed,  justice  was  only  for  the  strong,  laws  were 
for  the  rulers ;  misery  was  everywhere,  vice  was  rampant. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  crime  nourished.  Yet  the  theory  of 
repression  prevailed  down  to  very  recent  times — and  it 
prevails  in  many  places  even  to-day.  Perhaps  we  do  not 
care  to  kill  so  many  criminals  as  in  the  past;  we  merely 
want  to  put  them  in  prison;  but  the  theory  is  often  the 
same.  Because  severity,  repression,  and  intimidation  do 
not  prevent  crime,  this  method  was  a  failure  and  had  to 
give  way  to  that  of  reformation. 

3.  Theory  of  Reformation. — The  theory  of  reformation 
is  very  modern;  it  came  into  vogue  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Instead  of  trying  to  get  revenge 
on  the  criminal  for  his  act,  or  to  repress  crime  by  killing 
off  the  criminal  class,  we  have  changed  our  idea  gradually 
but  radically.  Instead  of  thinking  of  the  criminal  as 
incorrigible  or  as  belonging  to  a  class  which  cannot  be 
reconciled  with  society,  we  have  reached  the  idea  that 
the  criminal  is  much  like  other  human  beings,  and  that 
he  commits  crime,  not  because  of  innate  tendencies,  but 
because  his  training  or  environment  was  defective.  This 
theory  is  based  on  the  discovery  that  the  bulk  of  crime  is 
caused  by  environment.  With  the  establishment  of  this 
theory  the  treatment  of  the  criminal  has  changed  radically 
from  one  of  severity  to  one  of  fairness  and  consideration. 
The  new  point  of  view  has  brought  about  a  complete 
reform  in  the  management  of  prisons  and  other  penal 
institutions.  Instead  of  being  subjected  to  hard,  deaden- 
ing labor,  the  prisoner  is  taught  a  trade.  Instead  of  send- 
ing him  out  into  the  world  to  drift  back  into  crime,  the 
state  tries  to  get  him  employment.  Instead  of  flogging 
and  other  brutal  methods  of  discipline,  more  humane 
methods  have  come  into  use.  Modern  reforms  like  proba- 
tion, parole,  the  indeterminate  sentence,  and  the  honor 


506  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

system  are  made  possible.  It  was  found  that  the  former 
methods  of  handling  prisoners  made  them  worse  and 
actually  condemned  them  to  a  life  of  crime.  All  prisoners 
cannot  of  course  be  reformed,  but  many  can  be,  and  the 
result  has  proved  to  be  well  worth  the  effort. 

4.  Theory  of  Prevention. — While  we  recognize  the  value 
of  reformation,  we  have  now  come  to  realize  that  it  is 
not  the  end ;  that  the  chief  aim  is,  not  to  reform  criminals 
after  they  have  entered  a  life  of  crime,  but  instead  to 
prevent  their  entering  such  a  life.  The  juvenile  court 
with  its  system  of  probation  was  originated  in  order  to 
save  children  from  becoming  criminals.  But  still  more 
than  this,  the  aim  should  be  to  correct  bad  home  con- 
ditions, defective  industrial  conditions,  faulty  govern- 
ment, unjust  courts,  crowded  housing  conditions — in 
short,  to  remedy  those  conditions  in  society  which  cause 
crime.  This  is  the  present  theory  as  to  the  treatment  of 
crime.  In  practice  we  have  not  yet  reached  such  a  stage, 
although  we  are  headed  in  the  right  direction.  This  must 
be  supplemented,  of  course,  by  reformatory  treatment  of 
the  criminals  already  in  society. 

Different  Types  of  Prisons. — Prisons  of  antiquity  were 
places  not  for  punishment  but  for  safekeeping,  being  gen- 
erally dungeons  located  in  underground  chambers  beneath 
palaces,  forts,  or  castles,  or  in  some  dismal  or  inaccessible 
place.  In  these  dungeons  the  prisoner  was  detained  for 
trial  or  for  ransom,  or  merely  kept  out  of  the  way,  or 
held  for  torture.  Such  places  were  dismal,  dreary,  and 
often  disease-ridden.  The  prisoners  were  chained  or 
shackled  to  the  wall,  to  rocks,  or  to  iron  bars.  They 
were  given  the  poorest  food,  and  little  of  that.  Often  they 
were  left  to  starve  or  to  live  years  of  lingering  death. 
Persons  were  not  sentenced  for  definite  terms;  in  fact, 
prison  sentences  for  the  purpose  of  punishment  are  of 
comparatively  recent  origin.  The  prisons  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  little  better  than  the  prisons  of  antiquity,  being 
mostly  in  the  castles  of  the  barons  and  used  for  the  con- 
finement of  personal  enemies.  When  prisons  were  main- 
tained by  the  state  they  were  places  of  neglect,  where 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  507 

the  prisoner  was  much  more  apt  to  die  of  disease  and 
filth  than  he  was  to  live  to  see  the  end  of  his  sentence. 
Of  recent  years  prisons  have  been  built  and  operated 
upon  three  more  or  less  definitely  worked-out  plans, 
known  as  the  Pennsylvania,  Auburn,  and  Elmira  types, 
getting  their  names  from  the  first  prisons  of  their  kinds 
in  the  United  States. 

1.  Tine  Pennsylvania  type  is  based  upon  the  individual 
cell,  each  person  living  in  a  separate  cell — eating,  sleep- 
ing, and  working  there.     It  was  first  tried  in  England 
about  1785,  and  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
in  1790  at  Philadelphia.    It  was  adopted  in  a  few  other 
places,  but  was  not  copied  much  in  the  United  States; 
and  was  soon  abandoned.     It  has  some  advantages,  such 
as:     (1)  ease  of  government  because  of  the  little  need  of 
discipline;   (2)   prisoners  do  not  associate,  and  so  upon 
discharge  cannot  recognize  each  other,  hence  are  less  fre- 
quently tempted  to  commit  fresh  crimes;  (3)  because  of 
the   greater   chance   for  reflection  on  the   part   of  the 
prisoner,    reformatory    agencies    have    a    better    chance. 
These  good  points  are  more  than  overbalanced  by  the 
objections  to  the  plan,  some  of  which  are:     (1)  isolation 
has  a  bad  mental  effect  upon  the  mind  and  body;   (2) 
solitude  is  not  complete  because  of  visits  from  officials 
of  various  grades  and  often  of  questionable  character; 
moreover,  the  interchange  of  signals  destroys  isolation; 
(3)  prisoners  are  never  free  from  the  company  of  their 
own  thoughts — often  their  worst  enemies ;  (4)  instruction 
is  made  more  difficult  through  the  absence  of  class  teach- 
ing ;  (5)  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  oversee  work  and  to 
find  suitable  employment  for  all. 

2.  The  Auburn  type  is  named  after  the  prison  at  Auburn 
New  York,   established  in  1816.     Here  absolute  silence 
was  enforced,  but  the  convicts  were  worked  in  a  body 
or  in  large  groups.    The  discipline  was  severe  and  strict. 
This  plan  was  adopted  generally  throughout  the  United 
States  and  is  still  in  use  to  some  extent,  although  it  has 
given  way  largely  to  the  Elmira  system,  or  to  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two. 


508  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

3.  The  Elmira  system  is  named  after  the  Elmira  Re- 
formatory in  New  York,  which  opened  its  doors  in  1876. 
The  plan  gained  its  reputation  here,  although  many  of 
the  ideas  had  been  put  into  practice  before,  especially  in 
Australia.  It  is  a  combination  of  marks,  grades,  and 
parole  under  the  indeterminate  sentence,  the  marks  and 
grades  being  used  to  show  when  the  prisoner  is  ready  for 
parole.  In  this  way  they  are  used  as  rewards  or 
punishments.  Prisoners  are  usually  taught  trades  and 
receive  educational  instruction  and  religious  training. 
The  discipline,  while  not  brutal,  is  more  exacting  and 
unremitting  than  in  the  ordinary  prison,  and  for  this 
reason  is  less  liked  by  the  worst  men.  Reformation  is 
the  keynote;  the  endeavor  is  to  fit  the  prisoner  for  life, 
and  so  make  him  more  able  to  fight  life's  battles.  The 
system  is  especially  applicable  to  young  prisoners  and  first 
offenders.  It  has  its  disadvantages  in  that  it  opens  up 
chances  for  bribery  and  corruption  of  the  prison  officials, 
and  often  gives  more  power  to  the  warden  than  he  is 
capable  of  using,  but  this  is  more  the  fault  of  officials 
than  of  the  system.  This  plan  has  been  adopted  in  whole 
or  in  part  in  most  of  the  states,  including  Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Kansas, 
and  South  Dakota.  It  is  the  accepted  plan  of  to-day,  for 
it  gives  a  criminal  who  has  really  reformed  and  is  ready 
to  take  his  place  in  society  the  opportunity  to  leave  the 
prison.  When  coupled  with  the  indeterminate  sentence 
and  parole,  it  is  especially  successful.  It  compels  us  to 
study  the  criminal  and  to  accord  him  the  individual  treat- 
ment which  is  necessary  to  give  him  justice. 

American  prison  systems  have  not  been  so  successful 
as  those  of  some  other  countries.  Prison  discipline  has 
been  either  severe  to  the  point  of  cruelty,  or  lax  to  the 
point  of  weakness.  This  has  been  due  to  the  fact  that 
wardens  as  a  rule  have  been  political  appointees  who 
were  unfit  for  their  positions.  In  the  past  our  prisons 
often  were  perfect  hell-holes.  State  penitentiaries  of 
Missouri,  Ohio,  Texas,  Georgia,  and  Tennessee  have 
served  as  notorious  examples  of  what  ought  not  to  be, 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  509 

Prisons  were  great  manufacturing  establishments  run  by 
contractors,  because  the  contract  system  paid  best.  The 
state  took  little  interest,  except  to  make  the  prisons  pay, 
and  the  financial  test  was  the  measure  of  success  of  a 
system.  Self-control  was  not  encouraged,  and  the  prisons, 
instead  of  helping  the  prisoner,  ordinarily  sent  him  back 
into  life  a  greater  enemy  of  society  than  he  was  when  he 
entered.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  change,  and 
our  leading  penitentaries  are  trying  other  methods.  They 
emphasize  reformation  of  the  prisoner,  rather  than  punish- 
ment. Wardens  are  now  chosen  because  of  fitness  rather 
than  politics,  and  really  capable  men  are  accepting  the  posi- 
tions. 

Prison  Work. — To  find  work  for  prisoners  has  always 
been  more  or  less  of  a  problem,  but  in  general  the  follow- 
ing systems  have  been  adopted: 

1.  Contract  system,  or  the  letting  out  of  the  work  of 
the  prisoners  to  a  contractor,  who  comes  into  the  prison 
and  establishes  the  industry.     He  usually  pays  to  the 
state  a  lump  sum  or  a  certain  amount  for  each  prisoner, 
and  works  the  prisoners  as  hard  as  he  can,  paying  them 
nothing,  or  possibly  a  small  amount  for  extra  work.    The 
fault  with  this  system  is  that  it  gives  the  discipline  over 
to  private  individuals,  who  are  interested  only  in  the 
profit,  and  who  care  nothing  for  the  reformation  of  the 
prisoner.     Whether  he  or  she  does  the  required  amount 
of  work  is  the  only  test  of  conduct.     From  a  financial 
standpoint  it  generally  pays  the  state  fairly  well.     It 
also  relieves  the  state  of  the  expense  of  buying  machinery 
and  establishing  a  factory,  and  frees  the  warden  from  a 
great  deal  of  responsibility.    It  was  once  adopted  in  most 
of  our  penitentiaries,  but  is  now  being  discarded.     Be- 
cause  it    gives    a    few   manufacturers    an   advantage    on 
account  of  the  hiring  of  cheaper  labor,  it  has  been  much 
objected  to  by  other  manufacturers  and    by    organized 
labor  especially.    It  will  soon  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

2.  The  Lease  system,  or  the  farming  out  of  prisoners  to 
contractors  who  take  them  out  of  the  penitentiary  and 
assume  entire  charge  of  them — working,  feeding,  cloth- 


510  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

ing,  and  housing  them.  It  has  generally  resulted  in  gross 
brutality,  the  convicts  being  worked  to  the  limit  of  their 
endurance — often  to  the  point  of  death;  in  their  being 
fed  the  cheapest  and  poorest  of  food  and  housed  in  dirty, 
filthy  shacks,  and  in  their  being  shackled  together  at 
night  and  often  chained  to  a  ball  or  guarded  by  men 
with  shotguns  and  dogs  during  the  day.  The  treatment 
is  often  brutal  and  demoralizing  in  the  extreme,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  see  how  such  a  country  as  the  United  States 
could  ever  adopt  "such  a  system ;  yet  it  has  been  followed 
in  the  majority  of  our  Southern  states,  including  Georgia, 
Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Florida;  and 
in  the  last-named  state  it  was  in  operation  as  late  as  1916. 
The  whole  system  is  wrong,  for  it  grants  to  individuals  not 
only  the  handling  of  prisoners  but  control  over  their 
very  lives.  The  author  knows  of  no  arguments  in  favor 
of  this  shiftless  and  brutal  system. 

3.  Piece-price    system,    by    which    the    state    pays    the 
prisoners  a  certain  amount  for  each  piece  of  work  done. 
This  often  requires  an  elaborate  system  of  bookkeeping 
and  on  this  account  is  difficult  to  operate ;  yet  it  is  prefer- 
able by  far  to  the  two  systems  just  discussed.     It  gives 
the  worker  a  chance  to  aid  his  family  at  home  or  save 
money.    It  is  often  combined  successfully  with  one  or  the 
other  of  the  two  systems  yet  to  be  named. 

4.  Public  account  system,  by  which  the  state  puts  in  the 
factory    or    runs    the    industry.      This    requires    mucH 
machinery  and  a  large  investment  and  so  demands  busi- 
ness ability  to  carry  out.    But  under  this  plan  the  wardens 
can  maintain  a   definite   system   of   management.     The 
goods,  howeyer,  are  sold  on  the  open  market  in  competi- 
tion with  the  products  of  free  labor ;  also  there  is  danger 
of  graft  and  scandal  due  to  the  inability  of  wardens  to 
manage  such  an  industry.     This  system  in  combination 
with  the  piece-price  system  of  paying  the  prisoners  has 
been  worked  out  with  remarkable  success  in  the  Michigan 
State  Prison  at  Jackson,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  not  considered 
so  feasible  as  the  public  use  system. 

5.  The  Public  use  system,  or  the  manufacture  of  articles 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  511 

or  commodities  to  be  used  by  the  state  in  the  various 
institutions,  thus  freeing  it  from  the  necessity  of 
going  into  the  market  to  purchase  these  necessary  com- 
modities, and  also  avoiding  the  necessity  of  placing 
the  prison-made  goods  on  the  market.  This  saves  the 
state  money,  and  also  allows  the  warden  to  work  out  his 
own  scheme  of  management.  Moreover,  it  has  a  good 
psychological  effect  upon  the  prisoners,  for  they  feel  much 
more  like  working  if  they  know  that  the  public  will  gain, 
rather  than  a  private  contractor  who  is  getting  rich  from 
their  toil.  The  writer  observed  this  attitude  particularly 
at  the  Bridewell  in  Chicago,  in  the  making  of  bread  for 
the  municipal  lodging  house. 

Some  Modern  Methods  in  the  Treatment  of  Crime. — 
Juvenile  Courts. — Juvenile  courts  are  recent,  the  first 
court  of  this  nature  having  been  instituted  in  Boston  in 
1898.  Chicago  followed  the  example  of  Boston  in  1899, 
and  Denver  in  1901,  and  the  idea  quickly  spread,  largely 
due  to  the  advertising  given  it  by  Judge  Ben  B.  Lindsey 
the  juvenile  court  judge  of  Denver.  This  is  one 
method  of  criminal  procedure  in  which  the  United  States 
leads  the  world.  It  originated  in  the  belief  that  the  child 
who  committed  an  offense  and  was  arrested  and  treated 
in  the  same  manner  as  an  adult  was  not  receiving  justice, 
and  that  instead  of  being  reformed  he  became  hardened'. 
This  was  especially  true  if  he  was  thrown  into  the  ordi- 
nary jail  with  hardened  criminals.  So  a  new  procedure 
was  instituted.  Instead  of  following  the  ordinary  court 
method,  the  judge  usually  hears  the  cases  in  his  chambers 
or  in  a  less  awe-inspiring  method  than  that  of  the  crimi- 
nal court.  Instead  of  having  lawyers  and  calling  witnesses 
in  the  usual  manner,  the  child  is  generally  brought  lip  to 
the  judge,  who  has  a  friendly  talk  with  him,  hears  wit- 
nesses if  the  child  does  not  admit  the  offense,  and  if  it  is  the 
first  offense,  instead  of  being  sentenced  he  is  put  on  pro- 
bation under  the  care  of  a  probation  officer,  who  visits 
him  and  to  whom  he  is  required  to  report  at  stated  inter- 
vals. He  is  usually  also  required  to  visit  the  judge 
regularly,  generally  on  Saturday  mornings ;  to  those  meet- 


512  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

ings  he  is  required  to  bring  a  report  from  his  school 
teacher.  If  these  reports  are  good  and  the  probation 
officer  reports  that  he  is  behaving  himself,  the  child  is 
released  at  the  end  of  the  time  stated,  ordinarily  from 
six  weeks  to  six  months. 

This  system  requires  an  efficient  force  of  probation 
officers,  some  of  whom  must  be  women  to  handle  the  cases 
of  delinquent  girls  and  small  boys.  It  necessitates  also 
a  detention  home  to  prevent  the  sending  of  children  to 
the  lockup.  As  a  rule,  except  in  large  cities,  a  judge 
need  not  give  all  his  time  to  juvenile  cases;  so  he  often 
gives  but  one  day  a  week  to  them,  hearing  regular  cases 
on  other  days.  The  juvenile  court  also  handles  cases  of 
dependent  children  as  well  as  delinquent  ones,  and  often 
summons  the  parents  to  court  if  they  are  contributory 
to  the  delinquency  of  the  children  or  fail  to  care  for 
them  properly.  It  also  calls  in  others  who  may  be  con- 
tributory to  juvenile  crime  and  reprimands  or  otherwise 
punishes  them. 

The  whole  system  goes  at  the  problem  in  the  right 
manner,  and  attempts  to  prevent  crime  by  stopping  the 
youth  before  he  gets  started  on  a  life  of  crime.  If  pro- 
bation does  not  succeed,  the  child  is  sent  to  a  reform 
school,  there  to  be  kept,  if  necessary,  till  he  reaches  the 
age  of  twenty-one.  Before  the  juvenile  courts  came  into 
existence  we  were  sending  annually  five  thousand  chil- 
dren in  the  United  States  to  jail,  and  were  swelling  the 
number  of  criminals  just  about  that  much.  In  1901,  sixty- 
five  reformatories  in  this  country  had  harbored  up  to 
that  time  210,999  children.  The  preventive  work  of  the 
juvenile  court  has  touched  a  responsive  chord  in  the  Amer- 
ican public:  the  press,  the  pulpit,  and  the  lecture  plat- 
form have  advertised  it;  and  the  results  have  been  so 
remarkably  successful  that  it  has  spread  all  over  the 
United  States,  until  at  the  present  time  practically  all 
our  cities  have  juvenile  courts  in  some  form  or  other, 
working  with  varying  degrees  of  success.  In  some  places 
we  have  gone  to  the  other  extreme  and  have  been  entirely 
too  lenient,  putting  too  many  on  probation  without 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  61$ 

providing  proper  officers  and  without  building  proper 
reform  school  facilities  to  care  for  those  who  break  their 
probation  or  who  drift  back  again  into  delinquency.  The 
result  of  this  failure  is  that  children  lose  their  respect  for 
the  law.  This  is  not  a  fault  of  the  system,  but  of  the 
methods  of  carrying  it  out;  the  whole  scheme  of  course 
requires  judges  and  probation  officers  of  peculiar  ability 
to  handle  the  children  properly.  Not  only  has  the  juvenile 
court  been  very  successful  in  handling  juvenile  delinquency 
and  in  guarding  the  country  from  thousands  of  possible 
future  criminals  and  from  the  consequent  endless  expense, 
but  it  has  also  given  us  a  method  of  treating  adult  de- 
linquents as  well. 

Suspended  Sentence,  Indeterminate  Sentence,  Proba- 
tion, and  Parole. — Adult  offenders  are  also  now  being 
handled  through  suspended  sentences,  the  indeterminate 
sentence,  probation  and  parole.  While  these  methods 
are  separate,  they  may  be  considered  together  because 
they  overlap,  since  they  carry  out  the  same  principle — 
that  is,  returning  the  criminal  to  society.  The  suspended 
sentence  is  one  which  is  not  executed  during  the  good 
behavior  of  the  culprit.  While  splendid  in  theory  and 
excellent  if  properly  applied  to  youths  and  first  offenders 
who  are  known  to  the  judge,  it  has  been  greatly  abused 
in  some  places  because  of  the  laxness  of  judges,  who  have 
applied  it  to  all  rather  than  to  the  exceptional  offender. 
This  has  been  especially  true  in  Texas.  The  law  should 
not  be  blamed  because  of  the  inefficiency  of  judges. 
By  indeterminate  sentence  we  mean  the  sentencing  of  a 
prisoner  who  has  been  convicted,  not  to  a  definite  term 
of  years,  such  as  five  or  eight,  but  for  an  indeterminate 
period.  In  the  United  States  we  usually  fix  a  maximum 
and  a  minimum,  although  the  present  tendency  is  to  reduce 
the  maximum  and  eliminate  the  minimum.  This  leaves  the 
matter  of  length  of  sentence  to  a  board  or  commission, 
usually  the  Board  of  Parole,  consisting  generally  of  the 
warden,  sometimes  the  judge  sentencing,  the  prison  physi- 
cian or  chaplain,  and  some  outside  disinterested  person  or 
persons,  who  settle  the  question  of  when  the  prisoner  shall 


514  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

be  released.  These  boards  are  guided  in  their  decisions, 
not  so  much  by  the  offense  as  by  the  conduct  of  the  prisoner 
and  the  probable  chance  of  his  becoming  a  law-abiding 
citizen.  They  consider  the  future — the  effect  on  the  com- 
munity and  on  the  prisoner. 

Incorporated  with  the  indeterminate  sentence,  in  order 
to  make  it  successful,  generally  goes  parole,  the  releasing 
of  a  prisoner  to  serve  the  remainder  of  his  term  outside 
the  prison  walls.  He  is  usually  required  to  report  at 
stated  intervals  and  is  also  visited  by  a  parole  officer. 
To  obtain  parole,  work  must  as  a  rule  be  provided  before 
the  prisoner  is  released.  About  three-fourths  of  our  states 
now  have  indeterminate  sentence  laws  and  make  use  of 
parole,  some  even  extending  them  to  such  offenses  as 
murder,  after  ten  or  fifteen  years  have  been  served.  While 
some  prisoners  violate  their  parole,  from  seventy-five  to 
eighty-five  per  cent  live  up  to  the  terms  and  never  bother 
the  state  again.  About  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  those 
who  violate  their  parole  are  caught  later  and  returned 
to  serve  out  their  maximum  sentences.  These  are  gen- 
erally the  habitual  criminals  who  while  in  prison  create 
model  records  in  order  to  get  out  earlier.  On  the  whole, 
the  plan  is  very  successful  and  is  being  extended  more 
and  more. 

Probation  is  slightly  different.  Instead  of  being  released 
from  prison  before  the  maximum  term  of  their  sentence 
has  expired,  offenders  are  not  sent  to  prison  at  all,  gen- 
erally having  sentence  passed  upon  them  but  being 
released  upon  good  behavior.  This  is  merely  an  extension 
of  probation  to  the  adult,  resulting  from  the  experience 
with  juveniles,  and  is  used  mostly  with  first  offenders 
and  those  who  commit  minor  offenses.  If  carried  out 
under  a  proper  system  of  probation  officers,  it  often  works 
very  well,  provided  the  judges  use  discretion  in  granting 
it;  but  too  often  the  hardened  criminal  takes  advantage 
of  it  by  pleading  first  offense,  and  if  it  is  his  first  offense 
in  that  court  or  that  city  he  often  succeeds  and  thus 
escapes  justice.  In  this  respect  probation  is  not  so  suc- 
cessful as  parole,  for  it  does  not  give  the  judge  the  chance 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  515 

of  investigation  that  parole  does,  for  under  the  parole 
system  there  is  time  to  investigate  and  find  out  if  the 
offender  is  wanted  elsewhere  for  other  offenses;  under 
the  probation  system  this  chance  is  not  given.  Judges 
are  often  too  busy  to  search  for  all  the  facts,  or  are  not 
capable  of  making  accurate  decisions.  A  judicious  use 
of  probation  for  adults  is  all  right  and  highly  justifiable, 
provided  it  is  backed  up  by  a  proper  number  of  probation 
officers,  but  without  such  a  system  it  often  degenerates 
into  a  farce.  Probation  and  parole  are  too  often  con- 
fused in  the  popular  mind,  and  parole  is  condemned  for 
the  sins  of  probation.1 

Honor  System. — The  honor  system  differs  from  the 
preceding  ones  in  that  it  allows  the  prisoner  to  leave  the 
walls  of  the  prison  on  his  pledge,  not  to  try  to  escape, 
but  to  return  at  a  stated  time.  This  was  first  tried  in 
Oregon  a  few  years  ago.  There  the  governor  abrogated 
the  contracts  that  had  been  made  by  taking  advantage 
of  technicalities  in  them,  but  then  he  met  with  the  diffi- 
culty of  providing  work  for  the  prisoners;  so  he  tried 
the  experiment  of  getting  work  for  them  outside  the 
walls.  The  plan  proved  so  successful  that  it  has  been 
copied  in  other  states.  Of  the  1700  prisoners  committed 
to  the  Ohio  penitentiary  about  three  hundred  work  out- 
side of  the  walls,  some  as  far  as  forty  miles  from  the 
penitentiary ;  many  work  under  convict  foremen.  Of  the 
first  three  hundred  and  eighteen,  eighteen  violated  the 
parole,  but  nine  of  these  were  returned.  Of  the  one 
thousand  or  so  prisoners  at  Jackson,  Michigan,  two  hun- 
dred are  continually  at  work  on  their  honor  on  the  prison 
farm,  several  miles  from  the  walls,  and  altogether  about 
one-half  of  the  prisoners  are  allowed  this  privilege  at 
different  times;  fewer  violate  the  privilege  than  escape 
from  the  prison  by  going  over  the  walls  in  spite  of  the 
guards.  In  fact  it  is  generally  considered  dishonorable 
to  sneak  away.  This  is  especially  so  in  Colorado,  where 

1  In  New  York  State,  in  1921,  19,637  persons  were  released  on  pro- 
bation and  79.6  per  cent  completed  their  probation  period  and  were 
honorably  discharged,  while  8.2  per  cent  were  arrested  for  violation 
of  probation  or  fox  committing  other  offenses  and  were  imprisoned. 


516  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  men  are  engaged  in  road-making. 
Then  only  those  who  have  good  records  and  who  have 
served  a  considerable  part  of  their  terms,  thus  becoming 
eligible  for  parole,  are  allowed  to  leave  the  walls.  Since 
the  risk  of  getting  caught  and  serving  a  much  longer 
term  is  greater  than  simply  serving  the  remainder  of 
the  term,  there  is  practically  no  incentive  to  violate  the 
pledge.  Because  outside  work  is  much  preferred  to  inside 
work,  the  prisoners  are  careful  to  watch  each  other  and 
thus  prevent  running  away.  The  physical  effect  of  get- 
ting the  prisoners  out  into  the  open  is  good;  the  moral 
effect  is  much  better,  for  the  system  gives  them  greater 
confidence,  since  they  know  that  they  are  being  trusted. 
It  gives  them  greater  self-control  and  thus  makes  them 
better  fitted  to  take  their  places  in  society  after  discharge. 
Special  privileges,  such  as  conversation,  the  use  of 
tobacco,  and  the  wearing  of  ordinary  citizen's  clothing, 
are  usually  granted.  Thus  the  prisoner  feels  more  like  a 
man. 

No  prison,  except  a  jail  in  Vermont,  has  attempted  to 
put  all  its  prisoners  on  their  honor;  so  it  is  a  distinction 
to  be  given  this  privilege.  This  jail  in  Vermont  allowed 
its  prisoners  to  go  out  to  work  on  the  farms  for  two 
dollars  a  day,  one  dollar  of  which  the  prisoner  kept.  It 
is  found  that  the  hardened  convict,  accustomed  to  the 
old  methods  of  harsh  treatment — flogging,  tying  up,  the 
water  cure,  the  lock-step,  stripes,  etc. — responds  most 
readily  to  the  honor  system,  for  it  is  new  to  him. 

A  new  phase  of  the  honor  system,  in  fact  a  very 
advanced  form  of  it,  has  been  tried  out  in  some  of 
our  Eastern  prisons.  It  was  introduced  by  Thomas 
Mott  Osborne,  former  warden  of  Sing  Sing.  Under 
this  system  of  self-government  the  prisoners  by  means 
of  committees  fixed  the  punishments  for  violations  of 
prison  rules.  Osborne 's  plan  was  much  criticized. 
While  Osborne  is  looked  upon  more  as  an  idealist  and 
reformer  than  as  an  executive,  and  his  original  system 
at  Sing  Sing  has  been  modified,  the  plan  is  spreading.  The 
idea  has  come  to  stay  and  it  is  now  being  recognized  that 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  517 

Osborne  introduced  a  system  which  bids  fair  to  revolu- 
tionize our  methods  of  prison  treatment.  The  honor 
system  is  extremely  modern;  yet  it  is  spreading  very 
rapidly.  It  is  now  being  tried  in  Indiana  with  county 
prisoners,  in  connection  with  the  consolidated  county  or 
district  workhouses  or  prison  farms  for  minor  offenders. 

The  whole  method  of  treatment  of  criminals  has  greatly 
changed.  The  idea  of  retributive  justice  has  vanished. 
The  idea  that  the  treatment  of  the  criminal  must  be  severe 
and  harsh  and  his  life  made  as  uncomfortable  and  depress- 
ing as  possible  has  given  way  to  the  idea  that  while  the 
treatment  must  be  strict  and  exacting  it  must  at  the  same 
time  be  humane.  The  aim  must  be  to  reform  the  prisoner 
if  possible,  but  if  this  cannot  be  done,  protect  society 
by  confining  the  criminal  in  a  place  where  he  will  be 
treated  humanely,  but  where  he  will  at  least  pay  for  his 
support.  The  theory  that  the  criminal  is  a  person  who 
cannot  respond  to  humane  treatment  and  justice  is  now 
exploded. 

The  County  Jail. — One  phase  of  the  problem  of  crime 
which  has  been  sadly  neglected  in  the  past,  and  which 
perhaps  needs  attention  now  more  than  any  other  phase, 
is  that  of  the  county  jail.  As  a  rule,  the  average  county 
jail  is  a  miserable  structure,  often  unsanitary  and  danger- 
ous to  the  health  of  its  prisoners.  Then,  too,  it  is  used 
for  all  purposes — not  only  to  detain  those  who  are  await- 
ing trial,  but  to  house  tramps  and  those  desiring  a  night's 
lodging,  whether  honest  and  deserving  or  not.  It  is  often 
used  as  a  place  of  punishment  as  well,  especially  for 
minor  offenses.  Here,  as  a  rule,  no  work  is  provided; 
the  prisoner  is  merely  supported  in  idleness  at  public 
expense,  and  that  to  the  detriment  of  his  health.  All 
classes  are  herded  together — boys,  hardened  criminals, 
first  offenders,  and  repeaters.  It  is  much  the  same  prob- 
lem that  we  noticed  in  regard  to  the  almshouse.  Move- 
ments are  on  foot  in  some  states  to  consolidate  county 
jails  and  have  county  judges  sentence  their  short-term 
men  to  farm  colonies,  where  work  can  be  found  for  all, 
and  where  proper  correctional  methods,  such  as  the  honor 


518  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

system,  can  be  employed.  In  Indiana  this  system  is  work- 
ing out  with  remarkable  success  and  is  certain  to  be 
copied  by  other  states.  With  the  building  of  proper 
municipal  lodging  houses  that  provide  for  work  the 
vagrancy  problem  can  be  properly  handled.  Formerly 
the  tramp  who  wanted  a  comfortable  berth  for  the  winter 
would  hunt  up  a  fairly  decent  jail  and  by  committing 
some  petty  crime  in  the  county,  compel  that  county  to 
care  for  him  till  spring.  If  he  knew  that  he  would  have 
to  work  hard  in  some  farm  colony  during  the  winter, 
he  would  not  commit  the  offense. 

Separate  Prisons  for  Women. — Female  prisoners  pre- 
sent a  special  problem,  owing  in  part  to  their  small 
number.  In  most  penitentiaries  and  prisons  there  merely 
are  female  wards,  where  the  treatment  is  much  the  same 
as  that  of  men  and  where  suitable  work  is  provided, 
particularly  laundry  work  and  mending.  A  few  states, 
including  New  York  and  Indiana,  have  separate  prisons 
and  reformatories  for  women,  the  Bedford  Reformatory 
in  New  York  being  famous  for  its  success  in  reclaiming 
women.  The  problem  is  still  greater  in  the  rural  districts, 
where  female  prisoners  are  so  rare  that  it  would  be  ex- 
pensive to  build  separate  accommodations.  When  a 
woman  is  arrested,  it  is  a  problem  as  to  what  to  do  with 
her,  and  often  the  sheriff  has  to  care  for  her  in  his  own 
house. 

Other  Plans. — An  interesting  experiment  is  now  being 
tried  out  in  New  York  and  Boston  by  allowing  those  fined 
in  court  to  pay  their  fines  in  installments.  If  it  works 
successfully  there,  the  plan  will  probably  be  tried  else- 
where. Suggestions  are  often  made  to  allow  the  person 
who  steals  or  commits  an  injury  to  recompense  the 
injured  party,  or  to  compel  the  criminal  to  repay  the 
damage  he  causes.  This  would  be  difficult  to  enforce, 
yet  it  is  very  suggestive.  If  the  plan  compelled  the 
offender  to  repay  out  of  wages  earned  in  confinement, 
it  might  of  course  be  carried  too  far.  Substitutes  for 
imprisonment  are  being  continually  suggested,  and  many 
of  them,  such  as  probation,  parole,  and  the  honor  system. 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  519 

have  proved  themselves  worthy  of  adoption.  In  time 
others  may  win  the  same  recognition. 

Scientific  Attitude  Towards  Crime. — The  chief  aim  of 
penal  science  should  be  prevention — to  prevent  the  mak- 
ing of  criminals  through  environmental  causes;  to  prevent 
their  being  developed  by  bad  industrial,  governmental, 
economic,  and  social  conditions ;  to  remove  temptation  by 
having  a  well-organized  and  efficient  government,  and 
laws  which  are  enforced  by  an  efficient  police  force;  to 
have  courts  that  will  give  justice ;  to  have  economic  con- 
ditions such  as  enable  a  man  to  earn  a  living  wage;  to 
educate  the  masses  to  fit  them  for  life  and  citizenship; 
and  thus  make  it  possible  for  everyone  to  live  on  a  better 
scale  and  maintain  a  higher  standard  of  life.  We  should 
correct  untoward  social  conditions  which  hinder  the  indi- 
vidual ;  we  should  improve  conditions  in  the  family.  This 
can  be  done  through  visiting  nurses,  and  by  removing 
women  and  children  from  industry — where  they  are 
forced  into  it  in  order  to  maintain  a  living.  We  must 
substitute  healthful  amusements  for  the  saloon,  the 
gambling  room,  the  dance  hall,  and  the  vulgar  theatre. 
These  measures  will  not  prevent  crime  entirely ;  but  such 
a  program  if  carried  far  enough  will  reduce  it  to  a  mini- 
mum. This  cannot  be  done  in  one  generation.  It  will 
take  several  generations  to  lift  the  unfortunate  to  a 
higher  standard  of  living.  But  in  this  way  we  can  elimi- 
nate or  reduce  the  criminal  population. 

At  present  we  have  our  criminals  and  therefore  we 
must  deal  with  them.  For  this  a  penal  system  is  necessary 
— a  system  to  execute  the  sentences  of  the  courts,  to 
protect  society  from  dangerous  men,  and  to  awaken  the 
public  conscience  to  the  consequences  of  crime.  The  key- 
note of  the  methods  employed  should  be  reformation — 
whenever  reformation  is  possible.  Such  a  penal  system 
should  include  both  penitentiaries  and  reformatories,  the 
latter  for  minor  and  younger  offenders;  also  reform 
schools  for  boys  and  girls,  and  possibly  a  separate  re- 
formatory for  women.  There  should  be  workhouses  under 
state  control,  where  the  habitual  criminals  could  be  com- 


520  Treatment  of  the  Criminal 

pelled  to  work  for  a  living,  and  where  the  short-term  men 
might  serve  their  sentences  instead  of  in  the  county  jail, 
as  at  present.  The  reform  school  should  be  the  cap  sheaf 
of  a  good  probation  system  for  juveniles.  Where  proba- 
tion is  applied  to  adults,  probation  officers  also  should 
be  employed. 

There  should  be  separate  places  for  the  detaining  of 
persons  held  for  other  purposes  than  the  working  out 
of  sentences,  such  as  keeping  accused  persons  for  trial, 
and  holding  witnesses.  These  should  have  separate  cells, 
and  such  prisoners  should  be  held  as  short  a  time  as  possible, 
especially  the  witnesses,  and  should  receive  good  care.  The 
places  of  detention  used  to-day  are  often  worse  than  the 
places  for  working  out  sentences.  The  Harrison  Street 
police  station  of  Chicago,  for  example,  is  not  suitable  for 
a  dog  kennel,  much  less  for  the  keeping  of  human  beings. 
County  jails  should  not  be  used  for  the  housing  of 
tramps ;  these  should  be  cared  for  in  well-equipped  lodg- 
ing houses,  where  work  should  be  required  in  return. 
The  courts  should  be  equipped  with  physical  and  psycho- 
logical tests,  so  as  to  send  to  hospitals  and  special  institu- 
tions those  who  need  medical  attention,  and  to  insane 
asylums  and  schools  for  the  feeble-minded  those  belong- 
ing in  such  institutions.  People  of  these  classes  should 
not  be  compelled  to  go  to  the  jails  or  reformatories. 

The  jails  and  police  stations  should  make  special  pro- 
visions for  the  care  of  females  and  should  have  matrons, 
or  at  least  woman  helpers  subject  to  call  when  needed. 
The  treatment  of  prisoners  should  be  humane  but  not 
attractive.  They  should  be  compelled  to  do  useful  work. 
The  public  use  system  previously  described  has  proved 
itself  in  general  to  be  the  best.  There  should  be 
some  way  to  pay  the  prisoners  for  extra  work,  so  as 
to  allow  them  to  aid  their  families,  if  they  have  any, 
or  to  save  up  for  the  time  when  they  will  be  discharged. 
In  the  penitentiary  at  Jackson,  Michigan,  the  prisoners 
are  required  to  do  a  certain  stint;  for  what  they  do 
beyond  that  they  are  paid  by  the  piece,  and  thus  some 
earn  for  themselves  as  much  as  one  dollar  a  day.  This 


Treatment  of  the  Criminal  521 

gives  the  prisoner  some  incentive  to  work,  and  insures 
the  prison  against  loss.  The  discipline  should  be  such 
that  it  would  build  up  self-respect  and  self-reliance  in 
the  prisoner,  instead  of  killing  all  pride  and  initiative. 

The  theory  should  be,  not  to  try  to  check  crime  by  the 
severity  of  treatment,  for  that  is  always  a  failure,  but 
rather  to  check  it  by  the  sureness  of  punishment.  A  mild 
punishment  which  is  certain  is  feared  more  than  a  drastic 
punishment  which  is  uncertain.  Moreover,  the  idea  should 
be  to  try  to  return  the  criminal  to  a  useful  place  in 
society.  Also  the  punishment  should  be  fitted  to  the 
person  rather  than  to  the  crime.  This  necessitates  the 
indeterminate  sentence,  and  in  addition  a  good  system 
of  probation  and  parole.  There  should  also  be  the  honor 
system  for  such  as  are  capable  of  it.  In  short,  prevention 
of  future  crime  and  reformation  of  our  present  criminal 
class,  wherever  possible,  should  be  our  aim. 


READING  REFERENCES 

LEWIS,  B.  G.,  The  Offender. 

WINES,   F.   H.,  Punishment  and  Reformation,   Chaps.   III-XIj 

XIII-XV. 

OSBORNE,  T.  M.,  Within  Prison  Walls. 
ELIOT,  T.  D.,  The  Juvenile  Court  and  the  Community. 
HART,  H.  H.,  Juvenile  Court  Laws  in  the  United  States. 
FOLKS,  HOMER,  The  Care  of  Destitute,  Neglected  and  Delinquent 

Children. 

LINDSEY,  B.  F.,  The  Beast. 

ROBINSON,  L.  N.,  Penology  in  the  United  States. 
ASCHAFFENBURG,  G.,  Crime  and  Its  Repression. 
SALEILLES,  R.,  The  Individualization  of  Punishment. 
HAYES,   E.   C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Chap. 

XXXIII. 

WINES,  F.  H.,  State  of  Prisons  and  Child  Saving  Institutions. 
HENDERSON,  C.  R.,  Outdoor  Labor  for  Convicts. 
Prison  Reform  and  Criminal  Law. 
Reports  of  National  Prison  Association. 
Reports  of  International  Prison  Association. 
Reports  of  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections, 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
IMMORALITY 

Under  sexual  immorality  might  be  included  all  the 
various  forms  of  sexual  crime,  such  as  adultery,  incest, 
rape,  and  fornication,  but  these  specific  types  come  within 
the  category  of  crime  and  will  not  be  treated  here.  In 
this  chapter  the  treatment  will  be  limited  to  the  matter 
of  prostitution,  or  what  is  generally  known  as  the  social 
evil,  and  its  accompanying  conditions.  No  attempt  will 
be  made  to  enter  into  the  sordid  details  of  the  conditions, 
or  to  trace  carefully  the  history  of  this  problem  through 
all  its  horrible  past.  Prostitution  may  or  may  not  be  a 
crime,  depending  upon  the  attitude  of  society;  but  in 
either  case  it  is  best  to  treat  it  as  a  problem  by  itself. 
Sometimes  it  is  visited  with  heavy  penalties,  and  at  other 
times  it  is  permitted  and  even  protected  by  society,  being 
in  some  countries  looked  upon  as  a  necessary  evil. 

History. — Prostitution  is  almost  universal,  in  that  it  is 
found  in  practically  all  races  and  nations,  although  in  a 
few  places  it  seems  to  be  unknown.  Many  have  called  it 
a  problem  of  civilization,  attempting  to  show  that  it  is 
not  found  among  savage  tribes,  but  closer  investigation 
shows  that  not  only  is  it  not  unknown  among  many 
savages,  but  that  with  some  it  is  carefully  regulated.  With 
primitive  man  the  demand  or  occasion  for  prostitution 
was  felt  much  less  than  with  civilized  man,  and  of  course 
it  never  reached  the  high  state  of  organization  and  regu- 
lation which  it  has  received  under  civilization.  Civiliza- 
tion brings  in  problems  and  conditions  which  tend  to 
foster  it  more  than  primitive  life,  but  prostitution  cannot 
be  said  to  be  a  product  of  civilization.  Ancient  history 
is  full  of  accounts  of  this  evil.  In  the  Old  Testament  we 
find  many  records  of  its  presence,  and  it  was  found  also 

522 


Immorality  523 

among  the  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Phceni- 
cians,  and  other  peoples  of  Asia.  In  Greece  prostitution 
reached  terrible  proportions,  especially  in  such  cities  as 
Corinth.  But  it  remained  for  Rome  to  attain  the  climax 
of  degeneracy  in  this  respect ;  in  fact,  the  prevalence  and 
terribleness  of  this  evil  in  the  latter  days  of  Roman  his- 
tory are  almost  unbelievable.  In  Europe  during  the 
Middle  Ages  and  down  to  the  present  day  prostitution 
has  continued,  and  has  presented  a  problem  of  varying 
proportions.  In  this  period  it  probably  reached  its  height 
in  France  at  the  time  of  the  Bourbon  monarchy,  encour- 
aged and  influenced  by  the  terrible  excesses  of  the 
monarchs  themselves;  in  fact,  the  whole  line  of  French 
kings,  with  possibly  a  few  exceptions,  have  been  noted 
for  their  immorality.  All  of  the  monarchs  and  nobles  of 
Europe  during  this  period  were  noted  for  the  same  fail- 
ing, the  only  difference  being  that  possibly  the  French 
monarchs  were  the  most  notorious.  Prostitution  is  by 
no  means  a  thing  of  the  past;  it  is  a  problem  to-day  in 
practically  all  nations  of  the  earth,  and  is  especially  bad 
in  France,  Germany,  and  Japan.  It  is  probably  less  of 
a  problem  in  the  United  States  than  in  most  countries, 
and  with  us  the  evil  appears  on  the  wane. 

Causes  of  Prostitution. — Supply  and  Demand. — Prosti- 
tution, like  many  phenomena  of  society,  is  subject  to  the 
great  economic  principle  of  supply  and  demand,  man 
furnishing  the  demand  curve  and  woman  the  supply 
curve.  The  selfishness  of  the  male  in  his  desire  to  satisfy 
his  sexual  passions  at  the  expense  of,  and  contrary  to, 
the  normal  conventions  of  society,  and  his  unwillingness 
or  inability  to  control  this  desire,  constitute  the  demand 
side.  This  is  increased  largely  by  the  mistaken,  but  too 
frequently  accepted  notion,  that  sexual  indulgence  is 
essential  to  the  health  of  the  adult  male.  This  theory 
has  long  since  been  exploded  by  science,  but  still  persists 
with  many  people,  and  as  a  result  adds  enormously  to 
this  demand. 

The  supply  side  is  made  up  of  women  recruited  by 
society  to  live  lives  of  shame,  in  order  to  meet  this  demand 


524  Immorality 

of  the  male.  In  ancient  times  the  supply  was  furnished 
by  the  slave  populations,  from  whom  the  prostitutes  were 
enlisted,  being  either  sold  into  that  life  or  forced  into  it 
by  their  masters,  abductors,  or  seducers.  This  was  par- 
ticularly true  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  were  filled  with 
huge  slave  populations.  When  cities  were  captured  in 
wars,  the  women  and  children,  as  a  rule,  were  sold  into 
slavery,  and  naturally  a  large  percentage  of  the  female 
slaves,  who  were  young  and  attractive,  were  forced  into 
this  life.  At  times  laws  were  passed  forcing  women  into 
this  life,  such  as  those  condemning  Christian  virgins  to 
lives  of  prostitution  if  they  refused  to  worship  the  Roman 
gods,  which  were  enacted  in  Rome  during  the  early  days 
of  Christianity.  Laws  were  also  passed  in  Corinth  com- 
pelling slaves  to  prostitute  themselves  for  a  trifling  fee, 
in  order  to  attract  sailors  to  that  place.  Rome  was 
crowded  with  an  idle  class — gladiators,  ruffians,  soldiers, 
and  a  floating  population  which  contributed  to  the  ter- 
rible moral  conditions.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  army  of 
prostitutes  was  made  up  largely  of  aliens,  who  had  been 
captured  through  petty  wars  and  abused  by  the  soldiers, 
abducted  by  robbers,  or  ruined  by  the  nobility,  and  the 
neglected  children  of  the  unfortunate  classes.  Europe 
was  also  full  of  a  floating  population — travelers,  soldiers 
of  fortune,  and  traders,  who  added  to  the  natural 
demand. 

In  modern  tunes  the  prostitute  is  usually  a  citizen  who 
has  been  induced  into  the  trade  or  forced  to  accept  it 
by  modern  conditions  of  society.  In  modern  times,  too, 
through  the  growth  of  great  cities  and  industrial  centers 
we  find  a  constantly  increasing  class  of  unmarried  adults, 
who  add  to  the  demand.  There  have,  moreover,  always 
been  moral  perverts,  who  have  deliberately  chosen  lives 
of  shame  or  through  their  own  actions  have  been  forced 
by  society  into  an  open  confession  of  sexual  irregularity. 
These  are  the  natural  prostitutes,  but  they  have  generally 
furnished  only  a  small  part  of  the  number.  The  demand, 
if  strong  and  persistent,  will  create  a  supply;  in  fact, 
as  we  have  just  pointed  out,  it  has  done  that  in  the  past 


Immorality  525 

by  drawing  on  the  ranks  of  slavery  and  of  alien  popula- 
tions, and  is  doing  it  to-day  by  drawing  on  certain  ele- 
ments of  society. 

Biological  and  Psychological  Causes. — Primary  causes 
for  immorality  are  found  mainly  in  the  human  passions, 
and  in  the  lack  of  ability  to  control  or  hold  the  passions 
in  check.  Also  there  must  always  be  considered  the 
desire  for  finery  and  luxury  on  the  part  of  the  female; 
and  the  fact  that  prostitution  offers  an  easy  method  of 
procuring  these  luxuries  often  causes  many  to  take  up 
this  life.  The  desire  for  excitement  and  the  temptation 
to  do  the  forbidden  are  also  factors.  Then,  as  we  shall 
see  in  the  next  chapter,  a  large  percentage  of  the  present- 
day  prostitutes  are  feeble-minded,  and  consequently  lack 
the  ability  to  control  their  natures  and  to  withstand 
temptation.  In  the  past,  prostitutes  have  been  largely 
ignorant,  illiterate  persons,  with  the  exception  of  those 
who  were  forced  into  it  by  slavery  and  other  violent 
methods.  The  natural  prostitutes  enter  the  profession 
from  biological  or  psychological  reasons,  because  of 
innate  or  acquired  perversities  of  nature.  These  causes 
are  undoubtedly  stronger  on  the  demand  side  than  upon 
the  supply  side,  because  the  demand  is  wholly  biological 
and  psychological  in  its  origin. 

Economic  Causes. — Among  the  present-day  economic 
causes  are  such  conditions  as  low  wages,  the  large  mone- 
tary returns  from  this  life,  and  other  industrial  condi- 
tions. The  wages  paid  by  many  of  the  employers  of 
female  labor,  such  as  department  stores,  are  inadequate, 
and  hence  either  compel  other  means  of  support,  or  force 
the  worker  to  live  on  a  scale  which  means  malnutrition, 
lack  of  amusement,  insufficient  clothing,  and  a  dreariness 
of  existence  which  at  times  becomes  unendurable.  To 
the  worker  who  has  no  other  means  of  supplementing  a 
slender  income,  prostitution  unfortunately  offers  an  easy- 
method  of  obtaining  more  money.  While  the  majority  of 
women  will  prefer  starvation  to  such  a  means  of  liveli- 
hood, the  pressure  of  poverty  and  the  tremendous  temp- 
tation is  often  too  much  for  some  with  weaker  powers 


526  Immorality 

of  resistance.  Then  too  often  there  apparently  is  no  hope 
of  bettering  one's  economic  condition,  and  the  worker, 
who  at  first  abhors  such  a  life,  weakens  and  succumbs 
to  temptation. 

Besides,  under  our  present  industrial  regime  there  is 
unfortunately  a  large  male  population  in  our  cities  and 
industrial  centers,  whose  earnings  are  too  small  to  sup- 
port a  family  upon  the  scale  which  their  standard  of 
living  demands;  as  a  result  marriage  is  postponed  or 
renounced.  In  order  to  satisfy  their  passions,  they  fre- 
quent houses  of  prostitution,  and  thus  keep  up  the 
demand  side.  Under  our  present  program  of  educating 
people  to  the  dangers  from  venereal  disease,  this  demand 
is  slowly  being  cut  down,  but  in  the  past  it  has  been  a 
strong  factor  in  the  problem.  It  has  been  increased  by 
the  absence  of  local  restraint  or  knowledge  of  one's 
actions  by  relatives  or  neighbors,  a  source  of  restraint 
which  is  found  in  rural  neighborhoods. 

Compulsion. — As  in  the  past,  compulsion  is  still  a  cause 
of  prostitution,  although  not  to  the  extent  it  was  under 
slavery  and  serfdom.  Compulsion  is  both  direct  and 
indirect.  The  demand  for  women  to  fill  the  ranks  of 
prostitutes  who  die  has  caused  the  organization  of  what 
is  generally  known  as  the  " white  slave  traffic,"  by  which 
women  are  forced  into  this  life.  Because  of  the  efforts 
of  the  government  to  break  up  this  traffic,  it  is  not  carried 
on  in  such  a  bold  and  successful  manner  as  formerly. 
But  heretofore  this  business  was  organized  like  any  legiti- 
mate business,  having  its  corps  of  cadets  and  procurers, 
who  by  means  of  trickery,  offers  of  employment,  promises 
of  marriage,  or  mock  marriages,  beguiled  innocent 
victims  to  their  ruin,  or  by  kidnaping  and  coercion, 
filled  the  ranks  with  recruits.  Immigrant  women  and 
country  girls  coming  to  the  city  were  the  ones  preyed 
upon  the  most,  because  of  their  ignorance  of  the  new  con- 
ditions and  dangers,  and  their  consequent  inability  to 
cope  with  them.  Those  receiving  starvation  wages  were 
also  sought  and  enticed  into  the  life.  Often  victims  were 
simply  captured  and  reduced  to  submission  by  force  and 


Immorality  527 

violence.  Houses  of  prostitution  regularly  used  violent 
means,  including  chains,  the  lash,  starvation,  depriving 
of  clothing,  and  employment  of  ruffians,  to  reduce  their 
recruits  to  submission.  So  well-organized  was  the  traffic, 
that  regular  prices  were  paid  for  girls,  ranging  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  each,  depending  upon  the 
attractiveness  of  the  victim.  Girls  who  lapsed  from  the 
paths  of  virtue  were  also  forced  into  this  life  by  family 
and  social  ostracism,  although  the  men  who  ruined  them 
were  permitted  to  remain  in  the  best  society.  Compulsion 
has  always  been  employed  to  keep  women  in  a  life  of  shame 
after  they  had  once  entered  it;  direct  means  being  used 
by  the  brothel  keeper,  and  indirect,  subtle  ostracism  being 
employed  by  society  to  force  back  into  prostitution  all  who 
ever  practiced  it. 

Effects  of  Immorality. — 1.  Disease. — The  two  leading 
diseases,  spread  through  prostitution,  are  syphilis  and 
gonorrhea,  both  of  which  date  back  to  antiquity.  Both 
are  germ  diseases,  the  former  being  contracted  through 
blood  contact  and  the  latter  through  the  tissues.  While 
both  are  the  results  of  immorality,  syphilis  may  be  con- 
tracted in  other  ways  than  sexual  intercourse,  such  as 
the  use  of  infected  drinking  cups,  towels,  bed  clothing, 
and  water-closet  seats.  Both  can  be  cured  by  long  and 
patient  treatment,  but  generally  this  is  not  completed, 
and  the  poison  remains  dormant  in  the  system,  for  years 
after  the  disease  has  been  apparently  cured.  This  is 
especially  true  of  syphilis,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of 
appearing  by  stages,  often  many  years  apart.  While 
syphilis  is  generally  feared  because  of  its  horrible  fea- 
tures in  the  last  stages  of  the  disease,  and  while  gon- 
orrhea is  often  looked  upon  as  a  local  ailment  and  of 
minor  importance,  even  at  times  being  considered  as  of 
much  the  same  nature  as  a  cold,  gonorrhea  is,  in  fact, 
much  the  more  serious  of  the  two,  both  in  regard 
to  its  effects  upon  society  and  because  of  its  insus- 
ceptibility to  cure.  The  effects  of  both  diseases  upon 
the  offspring  are  terrible.  Eighty  per  cent  of  infantile 
blindness  is  due  to  these  troubles,  both  of  them  being 


528  Immorality 

contributory.  Syphilis  is  especially  deadly  to  the  fo3tus, 
causing  its  death  or  malformation;  in  fact,  hospital 
records  show  death-rates  as  high  as  sixty  to  eighty-six 
per  cent  for  children  when  the  parents  were  afflicted  with 
syphilis.  While  less  destructive  to  the  offspring,  gon- 
orrhea is  more  serious  to  the  wife  and  especially  destructive 
to  the  female  organs  of  reproduction;  it  is  the  leading 
cause  of  male  sterility  to-day.  In  addition  to  one-child 
marriages,  where  conception  took  place  before  the 
ravages  of  diseases  were  visible,  nearly  sixty  per  cent 
of  all  involuntary  sterile  marriages  are  due  to  these  two 
diseases.  Also  sixty  per  cent  of  all  operations  upon 
women  for  female  troubles  are  occasioned  by  sexual 
diseases.  Both  have  hereditary  effects ;  in  fact,  the  effects 
of  syphilis  are  inherited  to  the  third  generation.  Then, 
too,  both  diseases  weaken  the  constitution  and  thus  leave 
the  system  liable  to  such  diseases  as  tuberculosis,  cancer, 
and  nervous  disorders. 

When  it  is  considered  that  some  of  the  best  authorities 
claim  that  from  six  to  eighteen  per  cent  of  the  male 
populations  of  different  countries  have  syphilis,  and  from 
twenty-five  to  seventy-five  per  cent  have  gonorrhea,  the 
seriousness  of  the  problem  is  apparent.  Gonorrhea  is 
perhaps  the  most  widespread  disease  among  men.  Euro- 
pean records  show  that  a  few  years  ago  seventy-five  per 
cent  of  the  men  had  it.  It  has  been  estimated  in  the  past 
that  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent  of  the  men  in  the  United 
States  have  had  either  one  or  the  other  disease.  This  ratio 
(possibly  too  high)  has  fallen  during  the  past  few  years, 
owing  largely  to  education  concerning  the  matter,  and  to 
the  increasingly  greater  demands  made  by  women  upon 
the  men  they  marry. 

The  decline  in  the  United  States  was  shown  by  the 
records  of  our  enlisted  and  drafted  men  in  the  recent 
war.  If  these  records  are  accurate,  only  about  ten  per 
cent  of  our  male  population  have  these  diseases  in  a 
serious  form. 

The  effects  upon  the  birth-rate  of  nations,  as  well  as 
upon  the  health  of  individuals  and  the  morals  of  society, 


Immorality  529 

are,  of  course,  terrible.  Venereal  disease  is  probably  the 
greatest  cause  of  the  decreasing  birth-rate  in  France.  In 
every  country  where  records  have  been  kept  it  reveals  its 
devastating  effects  upon  the  manhood  of  the  nation.  And 
its  indirect  influences  are  hardly  less  harmful. 

2.  Business  Organization. — As  has  been  suggested,  pros- 
titution has  caused  the  organization  of  brothels,  which 
date  back  to  ancient  history,  and  regular  methods  of 
supplying  the  trade  with  women,  now  commonly  known 
as  the  "white  slave  traffic."     This  organization  inter- 
wove itself  with  many  other  enterprises.     It  was  vitally 
connected  with  the  liquor  traffic,  which  fostered  prosti- 
tution in  order  to  sell  more  liquor;  while  prostitution  in 
turn  encouraged  liquor  in  order  to  stir  up  the  passions 
of  people.    Many  saloons  catered  to  this  traffic  because 
of  the  increased  profits ;  and  prostitutes  were  often  hired 
by  saloons  in  order  to  stimulate  the  sale  of  liquor.    The 
traffic  was  also  interwoven  with  politics  and  police  admin- 
istration, and  utilized  them  in  defending  and  protecting 
the  business  in  much  the  same  manner  that  the  liquor 
business  did. 

3.  Family    Disorganization. — While    not    always    men- 
tioned   in    the    bills    for    divorce,    sexual    disease    and 
immorality  are  among  the  greatest  causes  of  divorce  and 
the  breaking  up  of  homes.    The  laws  of  nearly  all  modern 
nations  recognize  this  as  sufficient  ground  for  divorce. 
It  is  also  a  cause  of  much  marital  unhappiness  and  neglect 
of  children,  even  when  homes  are  not  broken  up. 

4.  Effect    Upon   Morals. — Perhaps   the    greatest    effect, 
although  not  the  easiest  to  point  out,  is  the  effect  upon 
the  morals  of  society.    It  is  responsible  for  the  "double 
standard ' '  which  has  existed  from  patriarchal  times  down 
to  the  present  day,  and  which  has  not  been  abolished  to 
any   great  extent  even  now.     Under  this  system   man 
could  do  as  he  pleased,  be  as  immoral  as  he  cared  to,  and 
yet  pass  in  the  best  of  society;  but  if  woman  departed 
from   the   paths   of   chastity   in  the   slightest,    she   was 
immediately    ostracized.      Women   themselves   have    been 
much  more  severe  in  this  ostracism  than  have  men,  accept- 


530  Immorality 

ing  the  sexual  irregularity  among  men  as  a  matter  of 
course,  but  never  forgiving  it  in  members  of  their  own 
sex.  In  many  sections  of  this  country,  especially  in  the 
Southern  states,  this  double  standard  is  still  binding, 
and  in  no  place  has  it  been  entirely  dispensed  with.  But 
there  is  a  tendency  towards  a  single  standard  for  both 
sexes;  it  is  being  established  not  only  by  insisting  upon 
a  higher  standard  for  men,  but  unfortunately  by  lower- 
ing the  standard  for  women. 

The  moral  effect  extends  to  all  phases  of  our  life.  It 
has  corrupted  police  forces;  it  has  adulterated  our  busi- 
ness and  our  legal  and  ethical  codes.  It  has  not  only 
corrupted  those  who  are  connected  with  the  evil,  but  it 
has  affected  the  whole  social  fabric.  How  great  has 
been  this  moral  degeneracy  we  cannot  say,  because  it 
does  not  lend  itself  to  measurement ;  but  without  the  social 
evil  our  morals  should  be  on  a  vastly  higher  plane. 

Treatment  of  Prostitution. — Society  has  always  recog- 
nized prostitution  as  an  evil,  and  has  continually  taken 
steps  to  eliminate,  check,  control,  or  regulate  it.  These 
attempts  cannot  be  discussed  chronologically,  because 
several  methods  generally  are  found  at  the  same  period 
of  time,  even  in  the  same  country.  Also  it  cannot  be 
treated  altogether  by  countries,  because  most  countries 
have  tried  several  methods.  We  can,  however,  sum  up 
our  treatment  under  three  heads:  repression,  regulation, 
and  prevention. 

1.  Repression. — At  first,  repression  was  exercised 
through  the  family ;  it  has  been  the  usual  method  of  pro- 
cedure in  patriarchal  countries.  This  was  to  protect  the 
purity  of  the  family;  and  the  general  method  was  to 
execute  or  ostracize  the  offending  woman,  no  attention 
being  paid  to  the  offending  man.  This  was  the  Jewish 
method  of  handling  the  problem,  although  the  Jews 
treated  it  from  the  religious  point  of  view  as  well  as  the 
family  one.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  laws  and 
ordinances  were  passed  against  prostitution.  The  bulk 
of  these  were  aimed  at  the  woman  in  much  the  same 
manner  that  laws  were  aimed  at  criminals  and  beggars. 


Immorality  531 

The  prostitute  was  whipped,  branded,  put  into  a  cage  and 
ducked  until  nearly  dead  from  drowning,  compelled  to 
wear  distinguishing  dress,  imprisoned,  and  exposed — 
often  naked — to  the  public  gaze  and  torment.  But  all 
these  measures  failed,  because  no  attempt  was  made  to 
prevent  the  conditions  which  produced  the  evil.  Yet 
this  method  still  persists,  especially  in  the  United  States 
in  the  form  of  fines  and  imprisonment.  While  it  probably 
has  some  effect  in  checking  or  holding  the  evil  within 
bounds,  it  cannot  solve  the  problem. 

2.  Regulation. — Considering  the  problem  as  a  more  or 
less  necessary  evil,  many  countries  have  attempted  to 
regulate  it,  in  order  to  minimize  the  evil  and  to  protect 
society.  This  policy  is  illustrated  in  an  elementary  way 
in  the  history  of  Greece  and  Home,  and  also  among  some 
primitive  peoples.  It  was  tried  out  in  mediaeval  times  in 
various  places  in  Europe,  in  order  to  keep  in  check 
vicious  conduct  on  the  part  of  citizen  women,  and  was 
thus  an  attempt  to  protect  the  families  of  citizens,  to 
preserve  public  order,  and  to  obtain  revenue.  Houses 
of  prostitution  were  legalized,  in  fact  often  licensed,  and 
prostitutes  were  compelled  either  to  live  in  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  towns  or  to  wear  a  distinguishing  dress,  such 
as  a  badge.  The  revenues  obtained  were  made  use  of, 
not  only  by  civic,  but  even  by  religious  bodies.  These 
restrictions  were  imposed  in  order  to  make  the  trade  less 
profitable  and  to  lessen  the  temptation,  as  well  as  to  fill 
the  treasury. 

In  modern  times  regulation  has  been  tried  to  protect 
both  the  family  and  the  patron  of  the  prostitute  from 
disease;  in  fact,  the  chief  feature  of  modern  regulation 
has  been  the  attempt  to  prevent  infection  from  disease. 
For  years  France  and  Germany  have  licensed  prostitutes, 
Paris  adopting  the  custom  of  licensing  in  1828,  although 
long  before  that  time  lists  of  prostitutes  were  kept.  In 
both  Paris  and  Berlin  weekly  or  bi-weekly  examination 
of  prostitutes  for  disease  is  made,  and  enforced  treat- 
ment is  provided,  in  case  disease  is  found.  While  at- 
tempts are  made  to  list  all  prostitutes,  Paris  is  said  to 


Immorality 

have  from  50,000  to  60,000  prostitutes  while  only  about 
6,000  are  registered;  for  Berlin  the  figures  are  from 
20,000  to  30,000  with  only  3300  registered.  Also,  the 
attempt  to  stamp  out  and  prevent  the  infection  from 
disease  is  a  failure,  because  those  who  know  they  have 
disease  do  not  register  and  generally  escape  detection, 
for  a  time  at  least,  and  also  because  examination  does 
not  always  reveal  the  presence  of  disease.  At  first  the 
listing  of  prostitutes  led  to  many  abuses,  often  forcing 
women  into  this  life  when  they  slipped  from  the  paths 
of  chastity,  or  even  at  times  upon  suspicion  that  they 
had  done  so.  Now,  however,  attempts  are  made  by  the 
police  to  prevent  the  novice  from  entering  this  life;  in 
fact,  minors  are  enrolled  only  when  they  are  known  to 
be  depraved,  and  attempts  are  made  to  permit  those 
capable  of  reform  to  re-enter  the  ranks  of  society.  The 
present  trend  is  towards  the  abandonment  of  the  policy 
of  state  regulation,  as  a  means  of  dealing  with  prostitu- 
tion. Many  countries  have  some  such  regulation,  but  it 
is  employed  chiefly  because  the  officials  do  not  know  any 
better  method  of  handling  the  evil.  Modern  regulation 
generally  includes  some  form  of  segregation,  the  prosti- 
tutes being  either  compelled  to  live  in  certain  sections 
of  the  city,  or  forbidden  to  enter  certain  sections,  in  the 
hope  of  thus  limiting  contamination  and  thereby  protect- 
ing the  rest  of  society.  This  has  been  as  far  as  regulation 
in  the  United  States  has  extended,  and  as  a  result  of 
this,  coupled  with  economic  conditions,  there  have 
developed  in  practically  every  large  city  in  the  United 
States  at  various  times  segregated  vice  districts,  some 
cities,  such  as  New  York,  often  having  several  such  dis- 
tricts. 

Many  American  cities  have  at  various  times  and  in 
different  ways  adopted,  for  a  while  at  least,  methods  of 
licensing  houses  of  prostitution,  as,  for  example,  by  means 
of  the  payment  of  fines  at  regular  intervals.  More  fre- 
quently, however,  the  toleration  of  such  places  is  the 
result  of  graft  in  connection  with  politicians  and  police. 
Most  of  the  leading  cities  in  the  United  States  have 


Immorality  533 

abolished  their  segregated  districts,  and  the  results  have 
been  more  than  favorable,  although  at  times  such  action 
apparently  has  not  improved  the  situation,  because  it 
has  forced  prostitutes  more  upon  the  street  and  into 
residential  districts,  and  thus  has  made  the  evil  more 
conspicuous  even  if  the  results  are  not  so  bad.  When 
segregated  districts  are  abolished,  this  law  has  to  be 
supplemented  by  measures  to  prevent  street  walking  and 
the  scattering  of  the  prostitutes  in  other  parts  of  the 
city.  On  the  whole,  regulation  does  not  regulate ;  at  least 
it  does  not  regulate  satisfactorily. 

3.  Prevention. — As  in  other  social  problems,  present 
efforts  are  directed  towards  prevention  of  prostitution 
rather  than  to  its  suppression  or  regulation.  While  this 
evil  can  never  be  entirely  abolished  so  long  as  human 
nature  is  as  it  is  at  present — the  worst  features  of  the 
situation  can  be  eliminated  and  the  evil  can  be  minimized. 
Already  the  worst  phases,  especially  the  worst  features 
of  the  "white  slave  traffic,"  have  been  greatly  mitigated; 
no  longer  does  this  business  loom  up  as  the  terrible 
menace  to  unprotected  womanhood  as  formerly.  The  per- 
centage of  men  who  patronize  the  houses  of  prostitution 
has  also  greatly  diminished.  Two  methods  for  preven- 
tion are  now  employed:  (1)  education  of  the  people 
to  the  dangers  of  prostitution ;  and  (2)  the  removal  of  the 
causes  of  prostitution. 

(1)  Education. — In  the  past  not  only  were  young  people 
kept  by  their  parents  in  ignorance  of  sex  dangers,  but 
anything  bearing  on  the  subject  was  strictly  tabooed  as 
a  subject  of  conversation  in  polite  society.  Parents 
allowed  their  sons  to  go  out  into  the  world  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  dangers  from  venereal  disease,  and  at  the 
same  time  permitted  their  daughters  to  be  exposed  to  the 
dangers  of  abduction  and  seduction  by  agents  of  the  "white 
slave  traffic."  They  were  also  permitted  to  marry  men  in- 
fected with  venereal  disease,  often  in  its  worst  forms, 
thus  entering  upon  lives  of  humiliation  and  suffering, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  effect  upon  the  next  generation. 
Seldom  did  even  the  most  conscientious  parents  instruct 


534  Immorality 

their  children  in  such  matters.  Instead  they  forced  them 
to  obtain  their  information  from  vile  and  unscientific 
sources  or  through  their  own  personal  experience.  It 
is  no  wonder  that  their  sons  visited  houses  of  prostitution 
in  order  to  satisfy  their  curiosity,  and  thus  became  in- 
fected with  venereal  diseases;  or  that  their  daughters 
either  married  men  similarly  affected,  or  were  caught 
by  the  nets  set  by  the  traffickers.  No  more  glaring  example 
of  the  failure  of  parents  to  carry  out  their  duty  to  their 
children  has  probably  ever  existed  than  this  failure  to 
instruct  in  regard  to  the  dangers  and  temptations  of 
the  sexual  evil.  Girls  were  not  supposed  to  know  that 
such  an  evil  as  prostitution  existed;  their  minds  were 
supposed  to  be  kept  in  a  pure  state,  at  least  until  it 
came  time  for  them  to  suffer  by  it,  as  a  large  per  cent 
were  forced  to  do  sooner  or  later. 

Fortunately  for  society,  these  sins  of  omission  on  the 
part  of  parents  are  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past.  Society 
no  longer  taboos  instruction  upon  these  subjects,  and  the 
present  generation  is  much  better  fitted  to  resist  this 
evil.  Modern  schools  are  also  attempting  to  give  some 
instruction  in  sex  matters,  although  as  yet  this  has  sel- 
dom been  effectively  done.  Books  and  magazine  articles 
are  appearing  upon  the  subject.  Churches  and  religious 
organizations  are  also  imparting  knowledge  on  the  topic ; 
they  are  often  too  late,  however,  to  do  much  good,  and 
possibly  they  fail  to  reach  those  who  need  it  most.  In 
former  times  ministers  knew  little  about  society — at  least 
the  seminaries  gave  them  little  training  of  this  sort — 
and  they  were  incapable  of  dealing  with  the  problem. 
But  now  the  seminaries  are  slowly,  if  somewhat  reluc- 
tantly, giving  the  ministerial  students  instruction  which 
will  be  of  practical  use  to  them  in  the  ministry.  Ministers 
are  thus  becoming  better  able  to  grapple  with  the  problem. 
In  short,  the  members  of  the  coming  generation  are  get- 
ting some  instruction  as  to  the  dangers  of  the  evil, 
instruction  which  their  parents  and  grandparents  did  not 
receive. 

In   the   past    men    always   demanded   chastity    of   the 


Immorality  535 

women  they  married.  Now  women  are  commencing  to 
demand  the  same  of  the  men  they  marry,  and  in  the 
future  women  will  in  all  probability  be  as  strict  in  this 
regard  as  are  men.  This  will  probably  go  further  towards 
doing  away  with  the  evil  than  anything  else,  for  if  men 
know  that  it  will  be  practically  impossible  to  marry  the 
.women  they  want,  if  they  have  lived  improper  lives,  they 
will  be  extremely  careful  in  regard  to  sowing  their  wild 
oats.  Then,  too,  if  men  know  the  dangers  of  disease 
and  the  effects  of  it  upon  their  wives  and  children,  they 
will  be  more  careful  in  regard  to  their  conduct.  In  the 
past  they  were  usually  ignorant  of  these  dangers  till  it 
was  too  late.  As  a  crystallization  of  public  opinion  along 
this  line,  some  of  our  states  have  passed — and  in  all 
probability  in  the  future  more  will  pass — so-called 
"eugenic  laws"  forbidding  the  marriage  of  people  in- 
fected with  venereal  disease.  At  present  most  of  these 
laws  have  defects  and  are  poorly  enforced,  but  the  com- 
ing years  will  probably  see  the  remedying  of  such  defects. 
Education  of  the  people  is  necessary  before  we  can  expect 
the  enactment  of  adequate  laws,  or  the  enforcement  of 
them  after  enactment.  Education  offers  us  the  most  effec- 
tive means  of  combating  this  evil. 

(2)  Removal  of  the  causes. — After  we  understand  the 
problem  and  know  what  conditions  contribute  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  evil,  we  can  effectively  deal  with  them. 
Along  this  line  comes  the  adoption  of  minimum  wage 
scales,  especially  for  women,  in  order  to  remove  the 
terrible  temptation  due  to  economic  necessity.  Proper 
building  laws  and  the  elimination  of  slum  conditions  will 
be  of  tremendous  value,  because  in  many  of  our  present 
tenements  life  is  so  sordid  and  privacy  is  so  hard  to  obtain 
that  vice  is  almost  inevitable.  The  government  has 
already  taken  steps  to  protect  immigrant  women.  Y.  "W. 
C.  A.  organizations  are  also  aiding  in  the  protecting  of 
girls  coming  to  cities,  as  are  also  all  our  settlements. 
The  "white  slave  traffic"  is  being  stamped  out  more  and 
more  vigorously;  but  we  need  yet  stricter  laws,  severer 
penalties,  and  still  more  vigorous  prosecution.  Parks, 


536  Immorality 

playgrounds,  social  centers,  and  settlements  are  furnish- 
ing more  healthful  recreation  than  formerly  was  obtain- 
able, and  so  the  sordidness  and  loneliness  of  the  life  of 
the  wage-earner  are  being  reduced.  As  education  upon  the 
subject  spreads,  we  can  expect  to  find  more  and  more 
successful  efforts  for  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  pros- 
titution. 

While  in  tKe  past  efforts  were  aimed  at  the  supply, 
without  paying  any  attention  to  the  demand  side,  modern 
methods  are  striking  at  the  demand  for  prostitution  and 
are  thus  aiming  at  the  real  roots  of  the  problem.  If  the 
demand  is  eliminated,  the  supply  will  automatically  dis- 
appear. While  the  evil  can  never  be  eradicated,  it  is  b^ 
no  means  hopeless  and  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Thanks  to  the  recent  war,  we  have  done  much  towards 
the  elimination  of  this  evil  by  curing  the  diseases  found 
among  the  soldiers,  by  educating  the  soldiers  and  the 
civilian  population  to  its  dangers,  and  compelling  cities 
near  army  camps  to  clean  up  their  vice  districts. 


BEADING  REFERENCES 

MORROW,  PRINCE  A.,  Social  Diseases  and  Marriage. 

DOCK,  LAVINIA  L.,  Hygiene  and  Morality. 

CHICAGO  VICE  COMMISSION,  The  Social  Evil  in  Chicago,  1911. 

NEW  YORK  COMMITTEE  OF  FOURTEEN,  The  Social  Evil,  1910. 

COCKS,  ORRIN  G.,  The  Social  Evil  and  Methods  of  Treatment. 

KNEELAND,  GEORGE  J.,  Commercialized  Prostitution  in  New  York 

City,  1913. 

SELIGMAN,  EDWIN  R.  A.,  The  Social  Evil. 
FLEXNER,  ABRAHAM,  The  Begulation  of  Prostitution  in  Europe. 
SANGER,  WILLIAM  W.,  History  of  Prostitution. 
ADDAMS,  JANE,  A  New  Conscience  and  an  Ancient  Evil. 
WOOLSTON,  H.  B.,  Prostitution  in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

DEFECTIVES 

A  problem  which  in  the  past  has  attracted  little  attention 
but  which  is  one  of  the  most  serious  confronting  the 
American  people  is  that  of  feeble-mindedness.  And  yet 
it  is  a  problem  which  lends  itself  easily  to  treatment ;  in 
fact  the  danger  from  it  can  be  easily  prevented,  for  the 
plan  of  treatment  has  been  more  or  less  definitely  worked 
out. 

What  is  Feeble-mindedness? — The  first  question  which 
confronts  us  is,  What  is  feeble-mindedness?  Where  are 
we  going  to  draw  the  line?  In  certain  communities  a 
person  might  be  perfectly  able  to  keep  up  the  pace,  but 
when  transferred  to  an  environment  where  life  is  more 
exacting  he  might  be  classed  as  subnormal.  In  one  class 
in  school  a  pupil  might  be  able  to  do  good  work,  but  if 
he  should  be  transferred  to  a  more  advanced  class  he 
might  immediately  become  the  dunce.  In  other  words, 
the  question  is  to  a  great  extent  a  relative  one.  Yet  by 
means  of  the  Binet  tests  there  have  been  marked  out 
three  more  or  less  definite  classes  of  defectives,  accord- 
ing to  the  mental  age  of  the  person;  that  is,  according 
as  a  person  passes  these  tests  with  the  same  agility  and 
accuracy  as  shown  by  a  normal  child  of  a  given  age.  It 
is  not  that  the  defective  knows  only  as  much  as  a  child 
of  that  age,  for  a  feeble-minded  person  of  the  mental 
age  of  eight  years  remains  at  the  age  of  eight  for  the 
rest  of  his  life;  while  the  normal  child  is  eight  but  one 
year,  moving  on  to  nine,  and  during  that  one  year  he 
cannot  acquire  as  much  knowledge  as  the  feeble-minded 
acquires  in  the  twenty  or  thirty  years  that  he  remains 
at  that  age,  during  which  time  he  may  acquire  quite  a 
fund  of  information — that  is,  such  information  as  an 

537 


538  Defectives 

eight-year-old  would  be  able  to  acquire.  The  classifica- 
tion is  made  on  the  basis  of  mental  ability.  The  three 
classes  into  which  feeble-minded  are  divided  are  as  follows : 

1.  Idiots,  or  those  who  never  exceed  the  mentality  pos- 
sessed by  the  normal  child  of  three  years.    They  not  only 
have  little  use  or  understanding  of  language,  but  are 
unable  to  guard  themselves  against  common  dangers,  such 
as  falling  into  fire.    Some  are  not  able  to  walk,  to  sit  up, 
or  even  to  know  when  they  are  hungry  or  cold.     The 
writer  well  remembers  a  ward  in  the  feeble-minded  school 
at  Waverly,  Massachusetts,  in  which  there  were  a  score 
or  more  of  this  class,  the  majority  of  whom  would  starve 
to   death   with   food   all  around  them,    or   freeze   unless 
pains  were  taken  to  see  that  they  were  covered  up  and 
kept  warm.    In  other  words,  they  were  great  babies  and 
had  to  be  cared  for  as  such.     It  is  this  class  in  regard 
to  which  the  question  is  always  brought  up,  Would  it 
not  be  better  quietly  to  put  them  out  of  their  misery? 
This  class  comprises  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  feeble- 
minded population. 

2.  Imbeciles,  or  those  possessing  minds  of  children  from 
three  to  eight  years  of  age.    People  of  this  class  are  able 
to  protect  themselves  against  the  ordinary  dangers  of 
life,  such  as  being  run  over  by  a  team,  falling  into  fire, 
or  falling  and  injuring  themselves,  but  they  do  not  pos- 
sess sufficient  brain  power  to  do  the  commonplace  work 
of  life.     They  are  able  to  play  if  the  play  is  directed; 
they  can  easily  be  made  happy;  but  they  are  unable  trf 
master  more  than  the  bare  rudiments  of  an  education, 
never  being  able  to  read  or'  write  with  any  fluency  or 
speed.    They  form  a  class  which  is  not  able  to  take  care  of 
itself  in  ordinary  society,  but  which  is  very  easily  cared 
for  in  the  proper  institutions. 

3.  Morons,  or  those  having  mentalities  of  from  eight  to 
twelve.     They  are  able  to  do  the  ordinary  work  of  life, 
to  do  customary  tasks,  and  in  general  to  pass  in  society 
without  attracting  much  attention.     But  for  this  very 
reason,  this  class  is  the  most  dangerous  of  all,  for  it  is 
the  one  which  furnishes  many  of  the  criminals,  a  large 


Defectives  539 

percentage  of  our  prostitutes,  the  delinquent  children  in 
our  juvenile  courts  and  reform  schools,  and  the  dull  and 
backward  children  in  our  schools.  Morons  lack  the  will 
power  to  keep  out  of  trouble;  they  have  not  the  mental 
firmness  to  resist  temptation,  for  to  be  moral  or  law 
abiding  requires  a  certain  amount  of  strength  of  mind. 
It  is  this  class  which  is  not  cared  for  by  our  feeble-minded 
schools,  and  which  is  the  dangerous  one  to  society,  for 
it  is  the  one  whose  members  reproduce  so  rapidly.  The 
idiot  does  not  reproduce,  and  the  imbecile  seldom  mates, 
but  the  moron  not  only  does  marry  but — what  is  more 
serious — reproduces  out  of  wedlock. 

Extent  of  Feeble-mindedness. — As  to  the  extent  of 
feeble-mindedness  we  have  no  reliable  figures  to  offer, 
estimates  varying  from  one-third  of  one  per  cent  to  three 
and  four  per  cent  of  our  population;  probably  two  per 
cent  is  more  accurate,  and  this  would  include  many  high 
grade  morons  who  sometimes  manage  to  care  for  them-: 
selves.  The  danger  is  not  in  our  present  number,  but 
in  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  increasing.  While  from 
eighty-five  to  ninety-five  per  cent  of  our  insane  are  cared 
for  in  asylums,  only  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the 
feeble-minded  are  so  cared  for.  We  do  not  fear  physical 
violence  from  them  in  the  way  we  do  from  the  insane, 
for  in  that  sense  they  are  harmless.  While  each  thousand 
of  the  most  fit  of  our  population  produce  in  fifty  years 
667  descendants,  each  thousand  of  the  least  fit  produce 
3650  descendants,  or  almost  six  times  as  many.  The 
moron  has  the  physique,  the  passions,  and  the  power  to 
reproduce,  but  he  lacks  the  ability  to  control  his  passions, 
and  as  a  result  he  leaves  a  large  progeny.  Now  every 
defective  is  not  only  a  potential  delinquent  but  a  probable 
one,  depending  upon  the  hands  into  which  he  falls. 

Feeble-mindedness  and  Crime  and  Vice. — At  present 
we  have  no  control  over  the  feeble-minded  until  he  or 
she  becomes  delinquent;  and  then  control  is  by  means 
of  the  reform  school,  reformatory,  or  workhouse.  From 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  children  appearing  before 
the  juvenile  courts  are  mentally  deficient;  our  reforma- 


540  Defectives 

tories  and  reform  schools  are  full  of  them.  Following 
are  some  estimates  as  to  the  percentage  of  feeble-mindedness 
in  some  of  our  leading  reformatories  based  on  mental 
tests  i1 

Per  Cent 
Institution —  Defective 

St.  Cloud  Beformatory,  Minnesota  54 

Bahway  Beformatory,  New  Jersey  (Binet  test) 46 

Bedford  Beformatory,  New  York,  (under  11  years) 80 

Lancaster,  Massachusetts  (girls'  reformatory) 60 

Lancaster,  Massachusetts  (50  paroled  girls) 82 

Lyman  School  for  Boys,  Westboro,  Massachusetts 28 

Pentonville,  Illinois,  Juveniles   40 

Massachusetts,  Beformatory,  Concord  52 

Newark,  New  Jersey,  Juvenile  Court 66 

Elmira  Eef ormatory,  New  York 70 

Geneva,  Illinois,    (Binet  test) 89 

Ohio  Boys '  School  (Binet  test) 70 

Ohio  Girls'  School  (Binet  test) 70 

Virginia,  Three  Beformatories  (Binet  test) 79 

New  Jersey  State  Home  for  Girls 75 

Glen  Mills  Schools,  Pennsylvania,  Girls '  Dept 72 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  percentage  of  feeble-minded 
is  higher,  as  a  rule,  in  the  female  schools  than  in  the  male 
institutions.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  feeble- 
minded girl  is  more  liable  to  get  into  trouble  than  the 
feeble-minded  boy;  though  it  might  seem  from  the  data 
given  above  that  there  are  more  feeble-minded  girls  than 
boys,  the  opposite  is  true.  Feeble-minded  girls  have  less 
will  power  in  sex  matters,  and  are  the  prey  of 
unscrupulous  men,  while  the  defective  man  has  little 
attraction  for  the  normal  woman.  It  is  generally  esti- 
mated that  fully  fifty  per  cent  of  our  prostitutes  are 
mentally  defective.  Goddard  asserts  that  at  least  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  criminals  are  mentally  defective,  although 
most  authorities  estimate  that  only  from  twenty-five  to 
fifty  per  cent  are  such.  Feeble-minded  people  are  not  by 
nature  more  vicious  or  criminal  than  other  people.  The 
ordinary  mentally  defective  person  is  docile  and  easy  to 
manage.  The  trouble  with  them  as  a  class  is  that  they 
lack  control;  they  are  unable  to  withstand  temptation, 

1  Goddard,  Feeble-Mindedness,  Its  Causes  and  Consequences,  p.  9. 


Defectives  541 

and  so  fall  easily  into  vice  or  crime.  They  are  unable  to 
distinguish  clearly  between  right  and  wrong.  Therefore, 
instead  of  being  regarded  as  ordinary  criminals  they 
should  be  treated  as  children  or  as  insane^  and  should 
not  be  held  accountable  for  their  actions.  The  feeble- 
minded person  has  the  body  of  an  adult  but  the  mind  of 
a  child,  and  it  is  illogical  and  unjust  to  expect  as  much 
from  him  as  from  a  normal  adult. 

The  same  condition  is  true  of  the  mentally  defective  in 
regard  to  alcoholism.  Since  there  is  less  ability  to  with- 
stand temptation,  the  feeble-minded  person  readily  falls 
a  victim  to  drink.  Now  since  the  liquor  traffic  has  been 
prohibited  in  the  United  States,  this  temptation  is  much 
less.  Under  the  old  order  of  things  every  feeble-minded 
person  was  a  potential  drunkard.  All  that  was  needed  was 
to  put  him  in  the  way  of  temptation. 

Feeble-mindedness  and  Poverty. — The  connection  of 
feeble-mindedness  with  poverty  and  pauperism  is  much 
the  same  as  with  crime.  The  feeble-minded  person  lacks 
the  mental  capacity  to  make  a  living.  Under  our  present 
economic  system  the  race  is  for  the  strong,  and  the  weak 
are  ground  under  the  feet  of  the  strong.  The  idiot  is 
incapable  of  doing  anything  and  must  become  a  public 
or  a  private  charge.  The  imbecile  is  able  to  do  simple 
things,  but  is  not  prepared  really  to  support  himself  under 
his  own  direction.  The  moron  is  able  to  work  at  ordinary 
labor,  but  is  incapable  of  planning  things,  and  is  there- 
fore unable  to  direct  his  life  in  a  rational  manner.  All 
of  these  classes  sooner  or  later  are  compelled  to  look  to 
others  for  help.  Some  are  aided  by  relatives,  but  others 
become  public  charges.  In  nearly  all  of  our  states,  under 
the  present  requirements  for  marriage,  the  moron  and 
even  the  imbecile  are  permitted  to  marry  and  thus  add 
to  the  problem.  Some  of  these  might  be  able  to  look 
after  themselves,  but  when  it  comes  to  supporting  a 
family,  it  is  impossible.  Added  to  this  is  the  complicat- 
ing fact  that  feeble-minded  people  have  large  families, 
most  of  whom  lead  a  wretched  existence.  Their  hardships 
are  sometimes  alleviated  by  neighbors  and  friends,  but 


542  Defectives 

the  problem  remains  unsolved.  Others  fall  back  upon 
the  almshouse  or  public  relief.  Goddard  thinks  it  is 
highly  probable  that  fifty  per  cent  of  the  pauperism  in 
this  country  is  due  to  mental  defectiveness.2 

As  we  indicated  before,  feeble-mindedness  is  a  relative 
matter,  it  being  hard  to  draw  the  line  between  those  who 
are  defective  and  those  who  are  normal.  It  is  believed 
that  many,  if  not  the  majority,  of  our  ne'er-do-wells  are 
such  because  they  lack  the  mental  capacity  to  be  any- 
thing else.  Though  they  may  have  the  ability  to  work, 
they  lack  the  ability  to  plan  life  intelligently.  Their 
judgment  is  poor,  and  their  mental  capacity  is  so  low 
that  they  are  unable  to  adjust  themselves  to  their  environ- 
ment. They  may  be  able  to  get  along  during  times  of 
prosperity,  but  when  difficulties  arise  they  are  incapable 
of  surmounting  them. 

Feeble-mindedness  and  Education. — Our  schools  are 
full  of  pupils  who  are  unable  to  learn.  While  many  of 
them  are  backward  because  of  laziness,  poor  health,  in- 
sufficient food,  and  lack  of  care,  others  are  defective 
mentally.  They  have  not  the  same  ability  to  learn  as 
the  normal  child.  They  cannot  think  in  abstract  terms 
and  they  are  slow  of  comprehension  or  weak  in  memory, 
being  unable  to  recall  to-morrow  what  they  learn  to-day. 
These  pupils  clog  the  schools  and  handicap  the  school 
system.  It  seems  almost  useless  to  try  to  teach  such 
pupils;  they  simply  are  unable  to  make  any  progress. 
The  presence  of  such  children  is  not  only  an  injustice  to 
themselves,  since  they  need  special  attention,  but  a  hard- 
ship to  the  normal  students,  who  are  held  back  by  them. 

The  problem  of  truancy  is  another  in  which  feeble- 
mindedness is  involved.  Many  children  become  truants 
because  they  cannot  succeed  in  school. 

Causes  of  Feeble-mindedness. — It  is  extremely  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  ascertain  the  exact  importance  of 
each  of  the  various  causes  of  feeble-mindedness.  The 
alleged  cause  is  often  not  the  true  cause.  But  the  best 
authorities  agree  in  saying  that  at  least  two-thirds  of  all 

s  Goddard,  Feeble-Mindedness,  Its  Causes  and  Consequences,  p.  17, 


Defectives  543 

feeblemindedness  is  due  to  heredity — to  the  presence  of 
bad  stock.  Feeble-mindedness  is  a  characteristic  which 
can  be  treated  as  a  unit;  as  such  it  has  been  found  to 
obey  the  laws  of  Mendelism,  although  there  is  some 
doubt  as  to  whether  it  is  a  dominant  or  a  recessive  char- 
acteristic. If  the  mentally  defective  were  not  allowed  to 
propagate,  we  should  stamp  out  at  one  blow  two-thirds 
of  our  future  feeble-mindedness.  The  other  third  is  due 
to  many  causes,  such  as  accident  or  disease.  There  is  a 
type  of  feeble-mindedness,  known  as  the  Mongolian,  be- 
cause of  the  resemblance  to  Mongolian  physical  charac- 
teristics, which  occurs  more  often  in  the  better  families 
than  in  the  poorer  or  less  capable  families.  It  apparently 
cannot  be  explained,  except  in  individual  cases. 

Sometimes  the  mental  defect  is  due  to  malnutrition 
before  birth,  or  to  a  blow  or  accident  to  the  foetus. 
Sometimes  it  is  attributed  to  hard  labor  or  the  use  of 
instruments  at  birth.  Yet  often  under  such  circumstances 
the  child  is  perfectly  normal.  In  investigations  made  by 
Goddard,  nineteen  per  cent  of  causes  were  attributed  to 
accidents,  of  which  eight  and  two-tenths  per  cent  happened 
before  birth  and  ten  and  six-tenths  per  cent  after  birth. 
Five  and  three-tenths  per  cent  were  attributed  to  spinal 
meningitis,  which  in  the  past  has  been  a  common  disease 
and  one  which  was  extremely  fatal.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  mortality  ran  as  high  as  seventy-five  per  cent  and  that 
of  the  twenty-five  per  cent  who  survived,  ninety-seven  per 
cent  became  mentally  defective.  Under  present  methods  of 
treatment  the  mortality  has  been  reduced  to  twenty-five 
per  cent,  but  the  number  who  are  affected  mentally  is  as 
yet  undetermined.  Syphilis  is  another  cause,  but  due  to 
difficulty  in  obtaining  data,  the  exact  percentage  is  unob- 
tainable. Consanguinity  has  been  suggested  as  a  cause,  but 
investigation  does  not  confirm  this  suggestion.  If  the  stock 
was  good  it  seldom  has  any  bad  effect,  but  it  has  when 
the  stock  is  questionable;  in  other  words,  consanguinity 
may  increase  feeble-mindedness,  but  seldom  causes  it. 

Treatment  of  Feeble-mindedness. — In  the  past  the  treat- 
ment of  feeble-minded  persons  was  one  of  neglect.  Those 


544  Defectives 

unable  to  care  for  themselves  were  either  left  to  the  care 
of  their  relatives,  or  were  thrust  into  almshouses,  along 
with  all  other  dependants.  They  were  the  prey  of  the 
stronger,  or  became  an  object  of  sport  to  the  community. 
The  town  fool  has  always  been  a  familiar  figure  and  is 
so  even  to  this  day,  an  object  of  torment  for  all  the  boys 
of  the  community.  Those  who  were  unable  to  do  any- 
thing were  generally  left  to  the  public  to  support.  Special 
schools  for  the  feeble-minded  have  existed  for  a  long  time, 
for  upwards  of  a  century,  in  fact,  but  the  trouble  has 
been  that  all  who  belong  there  have  not  been  sent  there. 
In  the  United  States  especially  we  have  no  laws  com- 
pelling their  segregation,  and  they  have  been  so  cared 
for  only  when  their  relatives  were  willing  and  when  there 
was  plenty  of  room  in  special  institutions.  Another  great 
difficulty  has  been  that  the  institutions  have  not  had  the 
room  to  care  for  the  feeble-minded  population,  having 
waiting  lists  longer  than  the  lists  of  inmates.  Moreover, 
those  who  have  been  admitted  have  generally  been  the 
idiots  and  low-grade  imbeciles  who  were  a  burden  to 
their  relatives ;  and  so  were  not  wanted.  They,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  are  the  least  important,  for  it  makes  little 
difference  whether  they  live  or  not,  and  then  they  never 
reproduce.  The  ones  who  most  need  to  be  confined — 
the  high-grade  imbeciles  and  the  morons — are  cared  for 
least ;  and  yet  it  is  in  them  that  the  principal  danger  lies. 
It  might  not  be  a  bad  plan  for  the  idiots  to  be  moved  out 
of  our  special  schools  and  left  in  the  almshouses,  or  cared 
for  by  the  towns  or  counties,  and  for  the  schools  for 
feeble-minded  to  be  reserved  for  the  care  of  the  higher 
classes.  If  parents  object  to  institutional  care  there  is 
usually  no  remedy,  and  many  parents  do  object  through 
ignorance,  not  knowing  that  the  child  is  better  off  in  an 
institution  where  he  is  protected  from  those  with  whom 
he  is  unable  to  compete. 

The  modern  method  is  to  segregate  these  unfortunates 
from  society  at  large,  protect  them,  make  their  lives  as 
happy  as  possible,  train  them  to  the  extent  their  minds 
;will  allow,  and  make  them  useful  and  either  self-support- 


Defectives  545 

ing  or  as  nearly  so  as  their  capacity  will  permit.  The 
boys  in  the  brick-yard  of  the  New  Jersey  school  for  the 
feeble-minded  at  Vineland  cost  the  state  before  the  war 
only  about  sixty-nine  dollars  apiece  annually,  and  pro- 
duced one  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  brick  each.  In 
the  other  departments  the  school  is  nearly  self-support- 
ing; in  some,  more  than  self-supporting.  Most  well- 
managed  schools  for  the  feeble-minded  do  nearly  all  their 
own  work,  produce  most  of  the  things  they  require,  and 
sell  besides  some  articles  for  outside  consumption ;  so  their 
cost  of  upkeep  is  very  small.  Work  is  made  as  pleasant 
and  congenial  as  possible,  most  of  the  work  being  done 
as  part  of  a  game.  Children  alternate  their  work  so  as  to 
avoid  monotony,  spending  an  hour  or  so  in  the  school 
room,  then  an  hour  or  so  in  the  cobbler 's  shop  or  in  what- 
ever place  they  work,  then  an  hour  in  play,  with  a  com- 
petent instructor.  The  study  or  work  is  not  allowed 
to  grow  wearisome.  In  the  matter  of  actual  instruction 
less  is  accomplished  than  in  teaching  them  to  be  efficient 
workers,  but  by  means  of  a  play  method  a  great  deal  is 
done. 

Madame  Montessori  borrowed  from  a  Paris  school  for 
feeble-minded  the  system  which  she  gave  to  the  world. 
It  is  merely  an  adaptation  to  the  normal  child  of  methods 
which  for  over  seventy  years  had  been  in  vogue  for  the 
teaching  of  the  feeble-minded.  The  senses  of  touch, 
taste,  and  smell  are  brought  into  use  to  supplement  that 
of  sight.  Instead  of  dealing  with  abstract  ideas  or  with 
imaginary  things,  the  instructors  use  real  loaves  of  bread, 
bricks,  or  apples;  and  they  so  manipulate  them  that  the 
child  will  readily  grasp  the  point  to  be  learned.  Such 
children  should  never  be  compelled  to  do  things,  but 
taught  to  want  to  do  things.  In  this  way  they  are  often 
made  very  useful,  especially  in  such  work  as  caring  for 
other  children  and  doing  simple  tasks.  At  Waverly, 
Massachusetts,  the  men  as  soon  as  they  become  grown 
are  sent  to  another  place,  where  they  work  at  clearing 
land.  This  keeps  them  out  in  the  open  and  enables  them 
to  pay  for  their  keep,  and,  not  being  worked  hard,  they 


546  Defectives 

are  happy  and  contented.  The  majority  of  the  institu- 
tions for  the  feeble-minded  are  very  efficient.  All  that 
is  needed  is  an  extension  of  their  equipment  and  the 
care  of  all  feeble-minded,  especially  the  morons,  by  the 
state.  This  requires  proper  legislation  and  adequate 
enforcement.  Such  persons  should  be  kept  in  institutions 
for  life  except  in  cases  of  recovery,  which  is  sometimes 
made  possible  through  operations  on  the  brain  or  spinal 
column. 

Sterilization  has  at  times  been  advocated  for  the  feeble- 
minded, but  is  no  longer,  for  it  is  inhuman  and  does  not 
prevent  the  person  from  spreading  disease  even  if  he  is 
not  able  to  propagate.  It  gives  too  much  power  to  others. 
Then  it  is  unnecessary,  for  segregation  is  no  hardship; 
in  fact  in  most  cases  it  is  a  blessing  to  the  afflicted  one, 
for  it  shelters  him.  Here  he  can  be  happy  and  useful. 
It  is  also  cheaper  for  society,  for  outside  of  a  school  for 
feeble-minded  such  a  person  seldom  is  able  to  be  self- 
supporting.  Two-thirds  of  the  cases  of  f  eeble-mindedness 
will  thus  be  checked,  and  checked  in  a  humane  manner. 
Abolition  of  the  liquor  traffic  and  reduction  of  immorality 
will  still  further  reduce  the  number  of  feeble-minded. 
In  short,  this  problem  can  be  readily  handled.  All  that 
is  needed  is  a  little  agitation,  the  proper  legislation,  and 
a  small  appropriation  for  initial  investment.  Afterwards 
there  will  be  required  only  small  yearly  appropriations  for 
upkeep,  and  even  these  in  many  cases  may  not  be  necessary. 
It  is  strange  that  a  problem  so  easy  of  solution  has  been 
sadly  neglected  in  the  past. 

Blindness  and  Deafness. — Blindness  and  deafness  are 
common  and  important  physical  defects  requiring  atten- 
tion. Between  eighty  and  ninety  per  cent  of  the  cases 
of  blindness  are  caused  by  the  venereal  diseases.  Blind- 
ness is  held  in  check  to  a  great  extent  by  dropping 
mercurial  solution  in  the  eyes  of  new-born  children.  The 
remedy  "606"  is  stopping  to  a  certain  extent  the  ravages 
of  syphilis.  In  addition  our  widespread  agitation  against 
the  social  evil,  and  the  advertising  of  the  effects  of 


Defectives  547 

immorality  are  cutting  down  its  extent  slowly  but 
steadily.  In  time  we  can  look  for  a  curtailment  of  blind- 
ness.1 Deafness  is  slightly  different.  While  it  is  inherited 
like  other  traits  and  obeys  the  laws  of  Mendelism,  it  is 
as  yet  not  a  dangerous  problem;  in  fact  a  person  who  is 
deaf  and  dumb  is  very  rare.  These  two  problems 
can  be  greatly  alleviated  by  proper  education.  The  blind 
are  taught  by  the  sense  of  touch  and  raised  letters.  They 
can  easily  learn  trades  and  in  most  cases  earn  a  living 
without  much  trouble.  The  deaf  are  still  better  off,  for 
through  education  they  can  not  only  be  taught  to  under- 
stand others  by  lip-reading,  but  many  can  learn  to  speak. 
Then  by  means  of  special  sign  alphabets  they  can  easily 
communicate ;  it  is  only  a  matter  of  inconvenience.  When 
only  one  sense  is  lacking,  the  others  easily  supply  it  by 
becoming  keener.  Of  course  those  thus  afflicted  are  always 
handicapped,  except  in  such  arts  as  music,  in  which  the 
blind  seem  to  be  perfectly  able  to  hold  their  own.  But 
education  solves  these  problems  very  easily.  They  do  not 
present  the  dangerous  feature  that  feeble-mindedness 
does,  for  the  blind  and  deaf  have  the  same  control  over 
themselves  as  normal  persons,  and  so  do  not  propagate 
any  faster  than  normal  people — in  fact,  not  so  rapidly, 
because  of  the  difficulty  in  finding  partners.  Moreover, 
blindness  is  not  inherited,  and  deafness  often  is  not. 

Insanity. — It  is  beyond  the  purpose  of  this  volume  to 
attempt  to  define  insanity,  to  discuss  its  various  forms, 
or  to  enter  into  detailed  consideration  of  its  causes.  Our 
purpose  is  merely  to  call  attention  to  it  as  a  type  of 
defectiveness,  and  as  a  part  of  our  treatment  of  the  mal- 
adjustments of  society.  Insanity  is  a  condition  which 
affects  the  nervous  system,  and  therefore  the  conduct  of 
individuals.  As  in  the  case  of  feeble-mindedness,  it  is 


^he  1920  census  gives  52,617  blind  persons  in  the  United  States, 
as  opposed  to  57,272  enumerated  in  1910.  (Both  of  these  estimates 
are  probably  too  low.)  Of  these  30,199  were  males  and  22,418  were 
females;  45,783  were  white,  6,306  negro  and  488  Indian,  thus  showing 
higher  ratios  for  negroes  and  Indians. 


548  Defectives 

extremely  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  sanity  and 
insanity ;  in  fact  no  sharp  line  can  be  drawn.  The  perfect 
man  mentally  is  about  as  rare  as  the  perfect  man  phys- 
ically; yet  this  does  not  mean  that  those  who  are  imper- 
fect are  insane.  Many  people  are  peculiar  in  traits  and 
habits  and  are  known  as  queer  in  their  temperament, 
who  are  by  no  means  considered  insane.  Even  if  a  person 
is  eccentric  and  markedly  different  from  his  fellows,  he 
is  not  necessarily  insane.  From  the  legal  point  of  view, 
if  a  person  leads  a  normal  life  and  can  successfully  attend 
to  his  own  business,  preserve  a  fair  degree  of  peace  with 
his  relatives  and  neighbors,  and  is  able  to  share  in  the  ordi- 
nary functions  of  society,  he  is  perfectly  sane,  even  if  ho 
be  peculiar  in  a  hundred  different  ways.  If  a  person 
cannot  attend  to  his  own  affairs,  or  if  he  becomes  danger- 
ous to  those  around  him,  he  may  then  be  declared  insane. 
Because  insanity  is  a  relative  thing,  it  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  data  in  regard  to  it,  and  any  statistics 
which  are  offered  are  open  to  criticism. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  insanity  is  a  disease  of  civiliza- 
tion; and  in  support  of  this  theory  statistics  showing  the 
increase  of  insanity  are  advanced,  data  which  seem  to 
indicate  that  as  the  strain  of  civilization  increases  more 
persons  are  unable  to  withstand  the  pressure  and  con- 
sequently break  under  it.  But  when  the  facts  are 
carefully  examined,  it  is  found  that  a  great  deal  if  not 
all  of  the  increase  is  due  to  the  fact  that  an  increasingly 
larger  percentage  of  insane  find  their  way  into  the 
asylums  and  thus  are  detected  and  counted.  Also  because 
of  humane  treatment  the  insane  live  longer  than  formerly. 
It  is  observed  that  more  manual  laborers  become  insane 
than  professional  people.  In  fact,  the  professional  men 
and  women  who  undergo  the  greatest  strain,  such  as 
teachers,  lawyers,  and  physicians,  present  less  than  one- 
half  the  amount  of  insanity  found  among  laborers;  and 
the  lowest  rate  of  all  exists  among  teachers,  who  undergo 
probably  the  greatest  mental  pressure.  It  is  found  that 
monotony  of  work  is  far  more  injurious  than  mental 


Defectives  549 

strain.  'K  person  can  endure  strain  if  there  is  variety. 
Because  of  this  fact  we  find  a  great  deal  of  insanity  among 
farmers  and  especially  farmers'  wives. 

There  are  many  forms  of  insanity.  Some  of  the  lead- 
ing ones  are  mania,  in  which  insanity  takes  an  active 
form,  such  as  suicidal  or  homicidal  mania;  melancholia; 
paranoia,  in  which  the  afflicted  person  appears  lucid  or 
normal  on  most  subjects  but  has  delusions  in  regard  to 
certain  subjects,  such  as  religion;  dementia,  a  general 
decay  of  the  mind,  often  following  some  other  form  of 
insanity;  and  paresis,  or  general  paralysis.  Students  of 
the  subject  have  made  many  subdivisions  of  these  forms, 
and  also  recognize  a  large  number  of  other  forms  of 
apparent  insanity.  Insanity  is  also  connected  with  feeble- 
mindedness and  epilepsy.  Theoretically  the  distinction 
between  feeble-mindedness  and  insanity  is  an  easy  one: 
those  who  never  attain  normal  development  are  classified 
as  feeble-minded,  and  those  who  are  born  normal  and 
attain  a  normal  mind  but  lose  it  subsequently  are  classed 
as  insane.  However,  in  practice  it  is  often  difficult  to 
draw  this  line.  Epilepsy,  as  we  shall  see  later,  often 
leads  to,  or  ends  in,  mental  incapacity. 

The  causes  of  insanity  are  many  and  varied;  the  sub- 
ject is  one  over  which  there  has  been  endless  dispute. 
The  following  are  among  the  causes  advanced:  epilepsy, 
mental  distress,  violent  emotion,  alcoholism,  drugs,  in- 
fluenza, mental  strain,  senility,  congenital  defects, 
heredity,  injuries,  rheumatism,  diseases  such  as  tuber- 
culosis and  syphilis,  child-birth,  religious  excitement, 
monotony,  overwork,  poor  diet,  homesickness,  jealousy, 
fright,  and  business  troubles.  Thus  there  are  two  main 
groups  of  causes — heredity  and  mental  strain.  Malnutri- 
tion and  poor  functioning  of  the  different  organs  of  the 
body  are  nearly  always  accompaniments  of  insanity. 

Treatment  of  the  Insane. — With  primitive  man  insane 
persons  were  generally  deserted  or  killed,  although  in 
some  cases  they  were  protected.  They  were  generally, 
mistreated  until  the  Middle  Ages,  when  they  were  re- 


550  Defectives 

garded  as  criminals,  and  confined  in  jails  and  dungeons, 
loaded  with  chains,  and  compelled  to  endure  every  in- 
dignity. Such  methods  have  been  outlawed,  and  the 
insane  are  now  looked  upon  as  unfortunate  rather  than 
as  delinquent,  although  it  has  been  only  a  few  years  since 
this  country  was  aroused  over  the  brutal  methods  of 
treatment  in  many  of  our  insane  asylums.  The  care  of 
the  insane  is  now  considered  a  public  duty,  it  being 
thought  unwise  to  leave  this  work  to  private  enterprise 
or  philanthropic  bounty.  Former  methods  of  restraint, 
including  cell,  dungeon,  cage,  ball  and  chain,  strait- 
jacket,  whip,  shower-bath,  bleeding,  and  starving,  have 
given  way  to  kindness.  It  is  very  rare  that  any  other 
methods  have  to  be  used.  Insanity  is  not  considered  the 
horrible  calamity  it  once  was;  much  of  it  is  now  thought 
curable.  Upon  admission  to  the  ordinary  asylum  to-day, 
the  patient  is  taken  to  the  hospital,  where  the  case  is 
diagnosed  and,  if  it  is  found  to  be  subject  to  treatment, 
is  handled  accordingly,  either  in  the  hospital  or  else- 
where. If  an  insane  person  recovers,  it  is  usually  during 
his  first  year  of  insanity.  So  it  is  wise  and  economical  to 
be  generous — even  lavish — during  the  first  few  months, 
because  in  this  way  the  state  is  saved  a  large  future 
expense.  Acute  cases  need  individual  treatment,  particu- 
larly baths,  varied  diets,  and  massage,  in  much  the  same 
way  that  any  ordinary  sick  person  does.  Chronic  cases 
need  custodial  care,  but  fifty  per  cent  of  the  insane  are 
quiet  and  orderly;  many  are  capable  of  working.  Most 
of  our  best-equipped  insane  asylums  have  farms  attached, 
where  many  of  the  inmates  work.  Of  the  methods  of 
construction  of  asylum  buildings,  the  one  most  commonly 
followed  in  the  past  has  been  the  large,  rectangular 
dormitory,  divided  into  wards,  by  which  some  kind  of 
classification  of  inmates  is  made.  While  this  plan  attracted 
attention  because  it  was  economical  and  conducive  to  a 
feeling  of  pride  on  the  part  of  the  residents  of  the  town 
in  which  the  asylum  was  located,  it  is  not  the  best  type 
of  construction,  because  it  does  not  give  sufficient  oppor- 
tunity for  individual  treatment.  Similar  to  this  and  in 


Defectives  551 

many  ways  superior  to  it  is  the  pavilion  plan,  with  wings 
two  stories  in  height,  thus  giving  better  light  and  ven- 
tilation. 

The  approved  method  to-day  is  the  cottage  plan,  for 
much  the  same  reasons  that  it  is  the  approved  method 
of  almshouse  construction.  In  Belgium  the  colony  system 
was  made  famous  at  Gheel,  and  it  has  been  adopted  in 
several  European  countries.  The  bulk  of  the  patients 
are  taken  into  the  homes  of  the  peasants  and  treated  as 
members  of  the  family.  This,  however,  would  not  suit 
American  conditions.  In  Scotland  about  one-fifth  of  the 
patients  are  boarded  out  in  private  families  under  definite 
supervision.  Here  they  are  treated  as  members  of  the 
family.  This  method  has  been  followed  to  some  extent 
in  Massachusetts  with  some  of  the  best  patients,  with 
good  results.  But  modern  methods  include  Hospital  treat- 
ment for  those  capable  of  recovery,  custodial  treatment 
under  the  cottage  plan  for  chronic  cases,  and,  where  pos- 
sible, colonization  on  farms  of  those  capable  of  that  work 
and  in  need  of  outdoor  life.  The  physical  side  is  looked 
ifter  very  well  at  the  present  day,  but  the  psychological 
side  is  often  neglected.  Sufficient  recreation  and  amuse- 
ment are  too  often  lacking,  although  in  most  asylums 
efforts  are  now  being  made  to  remedy  this  fault. 

Epilepsy. — Epilepsy  is  a  disease  which  is  receiving  more 
attention  now  than  formerly.  There  are  different  forms 
of  this  disease  and  so  various  classes  of  epileptics.  Some 
are  violent  and  liable  to  injure  themselves  or  their  com- 
panions, while  others  have  the  disease  in  a  mild  form. 
Some  are  able  to  carry  on  the  ordinary  work  of  life  and 
maintain  themselves;  while  others,  because  of  the  fre- 
quency and  violence  of  the  attacks,  are  unable  to  do  so. 
Epilepsy  is  connected  with  feeble-mindedness ;  it  is  a  cause 
of  feeble-mindedness;  while  on  the  other  hand  some 
feeble-minded  persons  become  epileptic.  While  epilepsy 
does  not  seriously  affect  the  body,  it  affects  the  mind, 
as  a  rule,  and  often  leads  to  feeble-mindedness.  It  is 
essentially  a  nervous  disease  and  is  hereditary  to  a  marked 
degree,  but  it  is  also  caused  by  sudden  fright,  prolonged 


552  Defectives 

mental  strain,  over-work,  and  debauchery.  'As  noted 
above,  it  is  often  a  cause  of  insanity. 

While  formerly  either  neglected  or  cared  for  only  in 
individual  cases  by  physicians,  it  is  now  being  treated 
more  and  more  in  institutions  or  colonies.  The  first  colony 
was  at  Bielefeld,  Germany.  Several  colonies  have  been 
established  in  the  United  States,  usually  with  a  farm 
attached,  such  as  the  Craig  colony  at  Sonyea,  New  York. 
The  modern  treatment  calls  for  the  cottage  plan  with  an 
outdoor  life,  or  some  form  of  farm  colony,  where  indi- 
vidual attention  can  be  given  and  the  mental  strain  and 
humiliation  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

On  the  whole,  insanity  and  epilepsy  are  not  the  danger- 
ous problem  for  society  that  feeble-mindedness  is.  The 
insane  are  kept  in  institutions,  and  the  problem  in  con- 
nection with  them  is  largely  one  of  wise  and  humane 
treatment.  With  epilepsy  the  case  is  largely  the  same. 
We  recognize  the  problem  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
that  dealing  with  insanity  and  are  at  last  taking  steps 
to  prevent  its  injuring  society.  As  to  feeble-mindedness, 
we  have  not  yet  awakened  to  the  danger  of  the  situation ; 
yet  this  problem  is  by  far  the  most  serious  of  the  three. 


READING  REFERENCES 

GODDARD,  H.  H.,  Feeble-Mindedness,  Its  Causes  and  Consequences. 

GODDARD,  H.  H.,  The  KalikaJc  Family. 

GODDARD,  H.  H.,  The  Criminal  Imbecile. 

SMITH,  S.  G.,  Social  Pathology,  pp.  198-255. 

WARNER,  AMOS  G.,  American  Charities,  (Rev.  1919),  pp.  305-346. 

SMITH,  S.,  Who  Is  Insane? 

BEST,  HARRY,  The  Deaf. 

BEST,  HARRY,  The  Blind. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Arts,  on  Insanity,  Epilepsy,  and  Deaf 
and  Dumb. 

DANIELSON,  A.  H.  AND  DAVENPORT,  C.  B.,  The  Hill  Folks. 

DAVENPORT,  C.  B.  AND  WEEKS,  D.  F.,  A  First  Study  of  In- 
heritance in  Epilepsy. 


PAET  Six 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
PROGRESS 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  define  progress, 
such  as  "an  increase  in  human  happiness";1  "the  improve- 
ment of  society";  "social. betterment";  "the  conquest  of 
nature ' ' ;  and  ' '  the  accumulation  of.  knowledge. ' '  Our  pur- 
pose will  not  be  to  add  to  any  sufcfc  list,  but  to  try  to 
gain  some  conception  of  what  progress  is,  and  then  to 
see  if  society  actually  is  progressing. 

Conception  of  Progress. — Progress  might  be  interpreted\ 
as  a  greater  assurance  of  the  survival  of  the  race  or  the  j 
preservation  of  human  society.    At  first  man  lived  on  a  [ 
very  slender  margin  of  safety,  being  in  danger  of  extermi-  ' 
nation  at  almost  any  time  and  liable  to  perish  in  the  face 
of  any  great  disaster.    Anthropologists  tell  us  that  count- 
less groups  or  bands  of  people  must  have  perished  utterly, 
either  being  exterminated  by  stronger  bands,  or  dying 
as  the  result  of  some  disaster.  Biblical  history  and  legends 
of  many  lands  tell  us  of  a  deluge  in  the  early  history  of 
man  which  nearly  caused  the  complete  obliteration  of 
mankind.    Anthropologists  also  tell  us  of  other  disasters 
and  the  destruction  of  races  at  other  times,  such  as  the 
extermination    of    the    Neanderthal    man    by    the    Cro- 
Magnon.    Even  history  of  comparatively  recent  times  tells 
us  of  disasters  and  conflicts  which  have  been  very  destruc- 
tive ;  like  the  various  waves  of  Mongolian  migration,  the 
campaigns  of  Attila,  and  the  Mohammedan  conquests. 

1Ward,  L.  F.,  Dynamic  Sociology,  11,  174-177. 

553 


554  Progress 

'The  Black  Death  caused  the  loss  of  a  large  percentage 
of  the  population  of  Europe,  and  the  recent  World  War 
threatened  the  retardation  of  society,  while  causing  the 
death  of  millions.  Even  now  some  students  point  to  a 
time  in  the  near  future  when  the  world  will  be  so  densely 
populated  that  subsistence  will  be  extremely  difficult  if 
not  impossible;  and  some  even  go  so  far  as  to  predict 
the  extermination  of  society  itself.  Progress  then  would 
include  the  ability  to  combat  such  dangers  and  to 
guarantee  future  existence  to  society.  "While  undoubtedly 
such  a  conception  is  a  phase  of  progress,  the  elimination 
of  danger  is  not  all.  Progress  is  more  than  an  insurance 
policy.  It  is  not  merely  a  negative  concept,  but  it  is 
also  positive  and  must  offer  some  other  goal  than  mere 
existence. 

Progress  is  more  than  the  mere  survival  of  society; 
it  must  include  a  more  complete  life  and  offer  a  fuller 
existence.  It  must  mean  greater  happiness,  loftier  con- 
ceptions of  the  meaning  of  life  itself,  and  the  more  harmo- 
nious mingling  of  individuals  in  society.  It  must  mean 
a  better  functioning  of  social  institutions.  These  must 
not  only  hold  individuals  in  check,  but  must  offer  more 
in  return;  they  must  serve  as  well  as  protect  society. 
Progress  includes  not  only  the  abolition  of  evils  in  society 
but  the  promotion  of  a  better  and  happier  state  of  affairs. 
It  is  not  limited  to  the  mere  securing  of  a  greater  abundance 
and  better  quality  of  food,  of  more  and  better  clothing, 
of  more  commodious  and  comfortable  houses,  of  shorter 
hours  and  more  congenial  conditions  of  labor,  and  of  more 
sanitary  and  healthful  environment,  desirable  as  such  con- 
ditions are.  .  All  these  we  strive  for  and  must  take  into 
consideration  in  any  conception  of  progress,  but  progress 
means  more.  It  includes  also  more  culture,  better  educa- 
tion, a  greater  production  and  appreciation  of  art,  and 
the  satisfaction  of  the  aesthetic  senses.  It  means  still 
more,  for  it  must  include  a  loftier  and  more  general 
diffusion  of  moral  and  spiritual  uplift.  It  must  include 
a  greater  development  of  the  spirit  of  altruism;  the 
appreciation  of  the  rights  of  others.  It  means  a  greater 


Progress  555 

dispensation  of  justice  and  spread  of  democracy;  the 
increase  of  the  equality  of  opportunity,  and  a  greater 
development  of  the  sense  of  social  service;  the  greater 
substitution  of  what  we  can  do  for,  rather  than  what  we 
can  get  from,  society.  To  express  this  briefly,  progress 
must  include  a  greater  spread  of  the  doctrine  of  "the 
Golden  Rule. ' '  While  other  conceptions  of  progress  might 
be  added  or  substituted,  the  above  is  an  attempt  to  out- 
line progress  as  the  sociologist  sees  it. 

Now  in  regard  to  our  second  question :  Are  we  progress- 
ing? The  question  is  frequently  asked  and  in  many 
quarters  denied.  There  is  no  question  as  to  progress  in 
the  increase  of  knowledge,  in  the  production  of  wealth, 
and  in  industrial  development.  In  economic  life  progress 
is  so  self-evident  that  there  is  no  room  for  argument. 
But  when  the  welfare  of  those  engaged  in  industry  is 
considered,  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  argument.  In 
regard  to  religious  and  moral  welfare  we  constantly  hear 
people  bemoaning  a  supposed  decline  or  degeneracy.  The 
family  is  even  criticized  at  times  as  failing  in  its  mission, 
and  men  sometimes  say  that  it  has  outlived  its  usefulness. 
Pessimists  are  constantly  reminding  us  that  things  are 
going  from  bad  to  worse.  No  careful  student  of  the 
question  can  agree  with  such  pessimistic  philosophy.  To 
disprove  such  arguments  one  has  only  to  compare  condi- 
tions in  society  to-day  with  those  of  a  few  hundred  years 
ago. 

Social  Institutions  Becoming-  More  Useful. — Family. — 
Under  matriarchy  the  family  relationship  often  broke 
down  and  the  family  did  not  always  serve  as  it  should; 
at  best  it  was  a  more  or  less  makeshift  arrangement. 
Under  patriarchy  it  was  solidified,  although  by  the  sub- 
jection of  the  wife  and  children  to  the  male.  Woman 
became  either  degraded  in  position  or  a  servant  to  her 
husband,  often  a  mere  chattel  in  his  household.  As  time 
has  passed,  the  position  of  woman  has  become  more 
elevated  and  her  lot  made  easier,  until  now  in  most  coun- 
tries she  bids  fair  to  stand  upon  the  same  footing  as  man 
and  to  enjoy  equal  privileges  and  opportunities.  The 


556  Progress 

family  is  also  functioning  better  in  regard  to  the  children 
than  formerly.  At  one  time  children  could  be,  and  often 
were,  sold  into  slavery.  Under  patriarchy  the  father  had 
the  right  of  life  and  death  over  them,  just  as  he  did  over 
his  wife,  a  condition  which  no  longer  exists  in  civilized 
countries.  Formerly  children  were  much  neglected — and 
in  some  cases  are  even  to-day,  but  not  to  the  degree  that 
they  formerly  were.  On  the  whole,  the  family  is  func- 
tioning much  better  than  it  ever  did  in  the  past.  Much 
more  is  expected  of  the  family  relationship;  we  now. 
demand  happiness  and  comfort,  whereas  formerly  the 
family  was  looked  upon  chiefly  as  a  means  of  continuing 
the  race. 

Government. — In  regard  to  government,  there  is  constant 
evolution;  a  government  which  does  not  serve  the  people 
in  the  best  manner  is  sooner  or  later  supplanted  by  one 
which  does.  When  a  government  becomes  tyrannical  or 
oppressive  it  is  overthrown  as  soon  as  the  forces,  which 
have  been  held  back,  become  strong  enough  to  assert  them- 
selves. There  has  been  a  constant  growth  in  the  part 
taken  in  government,  by  the  people  governed.  At  first 
government  was  largely  a  form  of  machinery  used  to 
carry  out  the  selfish  interests  of  a  few;  but  now  gov- 
ernment to  be  successful  must  serve  the  people  in  the  best 
manner  possible.  Of  recent  years  there  has  been  a  grow- 
ing tendency  towards  republics  or  constitutional  forms 
of  government.  Even  within  these  forms  there  is  a  steady 
growth  in  the  usefulness  of  government.  In  our  own 
country  we  are  constantly  striving  to  eliminate  privilege 
and  graft  and  to  serve  the  people  in  a  better  manner. 
While  all  governments  are  far  from  perfect — in  fact  they 
all  have  many  flaws — there  is  no  comparison  between 
the  service  to  people  rendered  by  a  modern  government, 
such  as  that  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France, 
or  even  Germany,  and  that  of  Babylon,  Ancient  Egypt, 
Assyria,  Persia,  or  even  Rome.  The  ancient  government 
was  cruel,  narrow,  and  tyrannical;  the  modern  govern- 
ment protects  and  serves  its  citizens. 

Religion. — We  often  hear  of  the  decline  in  religion — 


Progress  557 

of  the  claim  that  religion  is  dying  out.  While  formalism 
in  religion  is  decreasing  and  the  arbitrary  control  of 
religion  is  diminishing,  religion  itself  is  becoming  purer 
and  more  useful  to  man.  With  primitive  religion  control 
•vras  obtained  through  superstition  and  fear.  Under  early; 
Christianity,  even  down  to  Puritan  times,  control  was 
exercised  to  a  great  extent  through  fear.  Religion  in  the 
past  was  narrow ;  one  form  of  religion  would  not  tolerate 
another.  Indeed,  under  Christianity  horrible  persecutions 
were  carried  out  in  the  name  of  religion,  simply  because 
of  the  narrowness  and  bigotry  of  religious  leaders.  Re- 
ligion, like  government,  is  becoming  less  arbitrary  and  is 
seeking  to  serve  mankind  more  and  more.  In  our  study 
of  religion  we  noticed  a  steady  evolution,  until  the  rise 
of  Christianity,  which  is  the  highest  form  of  religion 
known  to  us  to-day.  In  the  same  way  there  is  a  steady 
development  in  Christianity  itself,  for  it  is  becoming 
purer  and  is  carrying  out  more  than  ever  the  teachings 
of  Christ.  It  is  trying  to  lead  rather  than  to  drive,  to 
serve  rather  than  to  compel  obedience  to  set  forms  and 
ideas.  It  is  not  trying  so  much  to  force  the  same  religious 
ideas  or  the  same  theological  doctrines  upon  all,  but  to 
permit  each  person  to  work  out  his  own  creed  and  to 
worship  as  he  sees  fit. 

Moral  Standards  and  Ideals. — As  society  advances, 
ethical  standards  and  ideals  become  loftier  and  purer. 
If  we  compare  our  codes  of  ethics  with  those  of  Babylon 
or  Ancient  Egypt,  or  of  the  early  Hebrews  and  Greeks, 
we  shall  be  surprised  by  the  contrast.  We  shall  find  that 
old  ideas  of  revenge,  such  as  the  doctrine  of  "an  eye  for 
an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,"  are  supplanted  byj 
Christian  principles  of  reconciliation  and  forgiveness. 
We  no  longer  sanction  slavery  and  infanticide.  We  have 
ceased  to  torture  prisoners  and  witnesses,  or  to  invent 
ingenious  methods  of  inflicting  the  most  pain  imaginable 
upon  criminals.  We  even  condemn  wrif e-beating  and  child 
labor,  and  try  to  reform  criminals  when  it  is  possible — 
ideals  which  in  times  past  would  have  been  scoffed  at  as 
insane.  We  demand  an  equality  of  opportunity  for  all. 


558  Progress 

While  occasionally  we  may  lapse  in  our  moral  standards, 
it  is  nearly  always  because  we  have  outgrown  the  old 
standard  before  a  new  one  has  been  formed. 

Education. — Although  our  educational  systems  come  in 
for  much  criticism,  education  is  constantly  becoming  more 
useful.  The  very  fact  that  we  find  flaws  in  our  educa- 
tional methods  is  a  hopeful  sign.  Probably  the  greatest 
advance  in  education  is  the  putting  of  it  within  the  reach 
of  all,  instead  of  restricting  it  to  only  a  few,  as  in  the 
past.  Education  is  designed  more  and  more  to  serve  the 
individual  and  to  benefit  society  as  a  whole. 

In  brief,  the  institutions  of  society  are  all  becoming 
more  useful  to  society.  Society  is  continually  breaking 
down  the  control  of  institutions  over  individuals  and 
reshaping  them  so  as  to  be  of  greater  service  to  mankind. 

Society  Functioning-  More  Perfectly. — The  interests  in 
society  are  becoming  more  healthful  and  less  selfish  and 
individualistic.  The  spirit  of  altruism  is  steadily  develop- 
ing, and  we  are  more  and  more  willing  to  seek  the  in- 
terests of  others  than  ourselves.  Even  nations  are  com- 
ing to  adopt  such  an  attitude,  as  evinced  by  the  colonial 
policy  of  Great  Britain  and  by  the  attitude  of  the  United 
States  towards  her  neighbors,  especially  Mexico.  Eco- 
nomic interests  are  now  being  forced  to  recognize  the 
health  interests  of  the  workers.  Society  is  continually 
trying  to  curb  and  hold  in  check  selfish  interests  that  are 
injurious  to  the  public,  and  to  eliminate  organizations 
and  groups  centered  about  such  interests,  such  as  the 
liquor  business,  prostitution,  and  political  rings.  While 
individual  interests  will  always  be  more  or  less  selfish, 
society  is  continually  holding  this  tendency  in  check  and 
striving  to  make  them  more  healthful  and  useful  to 
society,  as  well  as  to  the  individuals  profiting  by  them. 

Systems  or  means  of  control  are  becoming  more  effi- 
cient. Public  opinion  is  now  more  rational  and  effective, 
since  we  are  constantly  improving  our  means  of  com- 
munication, thus  enabling  it  to  become  more  enlightened. 
It  is  being  educated  by  use,  and  thus  is  becoming  more 
efficient  as  a  means  of  control.  Laws  are  being  made 


Progress  559 

more  democratic  and  practical.  During  the  past  few 
years  we  have  had  a  wonderful  development  in  social 
legislation.  Practically  all  European  nations  have  acci- 
dent insurance  for  workers  in  industry,  and  over  half 
of  them  have  systems  of  sickness  insurance.  Many  have 
systems  of  old  age  pensions.  In  the  United  States  we  are 
backward  in  this  line  but  have  made  some  progress  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years,  and  just  now  are  showing  signs 
of  soon  being  abreast  of  other  countries.  Already  we 
have  systems  of  workmen's  compensation  in  nearly  all 
of  our  states,  mothers'  pension  legislation  in  three- 
fourths,  and  minimum  wage  laws  in  about  one-fourth; 
and  much  sentiment  is  being  created  in  favor  of  health 
insurance  and  a  system  of  permanent  employment 
bureaus,  after  the  order  of  the  system  which  was  so 
successful  during  the  war.  We  are  adopting  laws  pro- 
tecting the  health  and  morals  of  workers  in  all  branches 
of  industry.  Laws  have  been  passed  by  many  states 
regulating  the  hours  of  work  for  women  and  minors, 
restricting  night  work,  and  generally  limiting  the  hours 
for  women  to  eight.  In  industries  where  long  hours  are 
dangerous  to  the  public,  like  railroading,  we  are  adopt- 
ing shorter  hours,  sometimes  through  voluntary  action, 
and  sometimes  by  means  of  legislation.  Laws  have  been 
passed  protecting  the  health  of  workers  in  many  of  the 
dangerous  and  unhealthful  industries,  such  as  that  for- 
bidding the  use  of  phosphorus  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches.  Laws  are  rapidly  compelling  manufacturers  to 
protect  their  workers  from  dangerous  machinery  by  the 
use  of  safety  devices  and  guards. 

In  the  past  laws  were  made  by  the  strong  for  their 
own  interests:  now  they  are  being  made  to  control  the 
strong  and  to  protect  the  weak.  We  are  passing  laws 
against  rebating,  pooling,  and  other  illegal  methods  of 
competition  in  business.  In  our  legal  machinery  we  are 
giving  the  weak  a  better  chance  for  justice,  as  illustrated 
by  the  instituting  of  the  public  defender. 

As  already  suggested,  control  by  religion,  while  it  is 
breaking  down  in  direct  effectiveness,  is  becoming  more 


560  Progress 

helpful  both  to  the  individual  and  to  society.  Instead 
of  standing  in  the  way  of  reform,  religion  is  now  doing 
its  utmost  to  bring  reforms  to  pass.  It  is  teaching  its 
followers  to  be  more  useful  to  society,  by  teaching  them 
to  help  society,  rather  than  to  isolate  themselves  from 
the  world.  Control  by  education,  ideals,  and  enlighten- 
ment is  becoming  more  and  more  important.  Increas- 
ingly are  scientists,  professional  men,  and  experts  called 
into  consultation  or  placed  in  positions  of  responsibility. 
Not  only  is  social  control  more  efficient,  but  it  is  afford- 
ing a  larger  share  of  equality  than  in  the  past.  Instead 
of  being  employed  for  the  interests  of  some  one  class, 
control  now  aims  towards  greater  liberty  and  democracy. 
Control  by  artificial  means,  such  as  superstition,  ceremony, 
habit,  and  custom,  is  becoming  less  and  less  important ; 
while  control  by  means  of  public  opinion,  education,  and 
enlightenment  is  greatly  increasing. 

Our  whole  social  organization  is  working  together  in 
a  more  harmonious  manner;  that  is,  it  allows  greater 
moral  development  and  wider  equalization  of  opportuni- 
ties. There  may,  however,  be  more  criticism  of  our  social 
order,  for  the  simple  reason  that  where  the  worst  con- 
ditions in  society  exist,  the  lower  classes  are  held  down 
in  such  wretchedness  and  helplessness  that  they  are 
unable  to  protest,  or  have  no  hope  of  improving  their 
condition.  "VVe  find  a  constant  tendency  towards  the 
socializing  of  our  institutions.  In  our  political  life  we 
find  socialistic  tendencies  constantly  coming  to  the  front, 
in  some  countries  through  a  definite  socialistic  party, 
and  in  others,  especially  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  the  adopting  by  the  great  political  parties  of 
socialistic  policies,  such  as  social  insurance  in  Great 
Britain  and  governmental  control  in  this  country.  While 
we  may  criticize  the  condition  of  social  classes,  especially 
in  some  countries,  the  social  order  of  the  present  is  far 
preferable  to  the  social  order  of  the  past.  Our  class  distinc- 
tions may  be  obnoxious  and  disagreeable  at  times,  but 
they  do  not  stand  in  the  way  of  equality,  liberty,  and 


Progress  561 

progress,  as  did  the  social  orders  of  such  countries  as 
Egypt,  Persia,  Greece,  Rome,  France  under  the  Bourbons, 
Russia  under  the  Romanoffs,  and  any  of  the  countries 
during  mediaeval  days.  Faults  in  the  present  social  order 
are  generally  the  results  of  petty  frictions;  but  we  are 
constantly  removing  the  causes  and  smoothing  over  the 
rough  spots.  New  problems  are,  of  course,  developing 
with  the  change  in  methods  and  the  ushering  in  of  new 
orders,  like  those  caused  by  the  invention  of  machines 
or  by  scientific  discoveries,  but  society  grapples  with  such 
difficulties  and  overcomes  them.  While  society  is  con- 
stantly becoming  more  complex  and  intricate  in  its  organ- 
ization, it  is  functioning  more  successfully  than  the  social 
organization  of  the  past,  in  that  it  is  serving  humanity 
better  and  allowing  greater  progress  along  all  lines. 

Social  Maladjustment  Becoming  Less  Harmful. — Al- 
though we  are  constantly  being  warned  of  the  danger  of 
some  evil  in  society,  and  people  are  continually  becom- 
ing alarmed  over  the  rise  of  some  new  condition,  tho 
great  problems  of  yesterday  are  steadily  becoming  less 
difficult,  and  we  are  meeting  and  grappling  successfully 
with  the  new  dangers  that  arise.  Poverty  and  crime  have 
always  been  our  greatest  social  problems;  at  various 
times  they  have  been  considered  hopeless,  and  often 
society  has  Been  alarmed  by  their  overwhelming  propor- 
tions. While  both  of  these  great  problems  are  with  us — and 
always  will  be  in  some  form — we  no  longer  look  upon  them 
as  hopeless.  We  are  now  digging  up  their  roots  and  striving 
to  eliminate  their  causes  as  well  as  applying  enlightened 
methods  of  treatment  to  those  who  suffer  from  them. 
In  regard  to  crime,  we  are  endeavoring  to  protect  society 
and  to  reform  all  of  our  criminals  who  are  capable  of 
reform,  and  at  the  same  time  are  attempting  to  extirpate 
the  causes  of  crime  and  to  prevent  their  producing  future 
criminals.  Though  our  efforts  may  be  crude  and  clumsy, 
and  though  we  often  fail  in  our  plans,  we  are  working  in 
the  right  direction  and  are  achieving  results. 

The  liquor  habit  was.one  that  in  former  times  we  looked 


562  Progress 

upon  not  as  a  serious  problem  but  as  a  natural  condi- 
tion. Later  we  became  alarmed  and  started  to  deal  with 
it,  but  without  much  success  except  in  the  way  of  educat- 
ing the  people  in  regard  to  its  evils  and  creating  public 
sentiment  against  it.  Then  when  sentiment  was  suffi- 
ciently developed,  we  systematically  went  about  its  solu- 
tion in  the  United  States  and  adopted  prohibition;  thus 
we  have  reduced  the  problem  to  one  of  l#w  enforcement. 
In  Europe  since  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  gigantic 
strides  have  been  taken  in  the  same  direction,  and  the 
handling  of  the  question  even  there,  where  it  was  more 
firmly  entrenched  than  in  the  United  States,  is  meeting 
with  a  measure  of  success. 

In  regard  to  immorality,  while  conditions  have  been 
bad  during  the  past  few  decades,  it  has  by  no  means 
approached  the  proportions  it  attained  in  Rome  and  in 
Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  We  are  also  pushing 
this  problem  into  the  background  by  trying  less  to  curb 
or  suppress  the  outward  symptoms,  and  striking  instead 
at  the  root  of  the  evil  by  eliminating  the  causes  of  the 
conditions.  We  are  trying  to  eliminate  the  demand  for 
the  evil,  instead  of  merely  dealing  with  the  supply  side 
of  the  problem.  As  in  our  treatment  of  crime,  instead 
of  trying  to  suppress  vice  we  are  trying  to  prevent  it. 
Our  efforts  in  this  direction  have  thus  far  met  with  only 
moderate  success  in  this  country,  but  we  are  advancing. 

In  regard  to  the  defective  classes,  we  are  again  trying 
to  deal  with  the  problem  in  a  constructive  manner — that 
of  elimination,  in  as  humane  and  altruistic  a  manner  as 
possible.  We  are  endeavoring  to  eliminate  these  classes 
largely  by  preventing  their  propagation,  and  the  conse- 
quent bringing  in  of  future  generations  of  defectives  to 
take  their  place.  Thus  instead  of  becoming  overwhelmed 
by  the  dangerous  classes,  we  shall  eliminate  them.  We 
have  not  progressed  very  far  in  this  policy  in  the  case 
of  the  feeble-minded,  but  we  are  awakening  to  the  need  of 
action  and  soon  shall  be  handling  the  question  in  a  scien- 
tific manner. 

While  our  outlook  is  optimistic,  improvement  will  not 


Progress 

come  about  without  continuous  struggle  and  effort ;  hence 
the  constant  need  of  the  trained  sociologist  as  well  as 
of  the  reformer.  It  will  require  the  conscious  endeavor 
of  society  and  a  steady  determination  to  achieve  progress. 
Instead  of  a  laissez  faire  policy,  constant  struggle  and 
effort  are  necessary. 

At  the  present  time  the  tremendous  world  conflict 
through  which  we  have  just  passed,  the  greatest  and  most 
disastrous  struggle  that  history  has  known,  seems  to  deny, 
or  at  least  shake,  any  such  optimistic  philosophy.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war  it  seemed  as  if  the  knell  of  European 
civilization  might  have  been  sounded,  and  even  now,  after 
the  war  has  been  over  for  some  time,  this  possibility  has 
not  been  entirely  banished.  But  we  are  living  entirely 
too  near  the  terrible  struggle  to  see  it  in  its  true  perspec- 
tive. The  war,  terrible  as  it  has  been,  may  make  possible 
a  measure  of  achievement  which  would  have  been  impos- 
sible without  it.  The  French  Revolution  seemed  terrible" 
in  its  bloodshed,  but  the  later  prosperous  and  happy 
France  would  not  have  been  possible  without  it.  The 
Chicago  fire  and  the  San  Francisco  earthquake  were 
terrible  disasters,  but  the  present  Chicago  and  San  Fran- 
cisco would  have  been  impossible  without  them.  Similarly 
the  burning  of  Rome  and  London  were  blessings  in  dis- 
guise. Out  of  the  ruins  caused  by  the  recent  struggle 
there  may  emerge  a  free  and  prosperous  Europe,  and  a 
plane  of  civilization  may  be  reached  which  would  have 
been  impossible  without  this  colossal  holocaust.  Already 
the  indications  are  that  a  condition  of  greater  democracy 
and  political  freedom  will  be  achieved,  as  well  as  greater 
social  advances.  Perhaps  the  world  needed  such  a  terrible 
test  of  fire  to  bring  out  the  finer  qualities  of  character 
and  to  produce  a  higher  type  of  civilization.  Such  has 
been  the  history  of  the  past ;  and  the  present  indications 
are  that  the  recent  war,  instead  of  standing  in  the  way  of 
progress,  will  permit  still  greater  progress  in  the  future. 


564  Progress 


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INDEX 


Accidents,  prevention  of  indus- 
trial, 66;  danger  from,  in 
cities,  151;  insurance  against, 
266;  poverty  caused  by,  439 

Achievement,  social,  as  a  phase 
of  sociology,  247-266 

Esthetic  interests  of  man,  372- 
373 

Africa,  past  history  of  the  negro 
in,  162 

Aged,  homes  and  pensions  for 
the,  476 

Agriculture,  change  in  methods 
of,  a  cause  of  urban  migration, 
139 ;  improvement  in  results  of, 
a  force  operating  against  ur- 
ban migration,  142-143;  waste- 
ful methods  prevalent  in,  147- 
149;  education  in,  in  schools, 
341 

Alabama,  negro  population  of, 
159  ;  institutions  for  negro  edu- 
cation in,  184 

Alcoholism,  relation  between 
crime  and,  500 

Alcuiu,  early  educator,  322 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  intellectual 
supremacy  of,  316;  catechetical 
school  at,  320 

Allusion,  social  control  through, 
398 

Almshouses,  care  of  poor  in,  468- 
469;  stages  in  system  of,  469- 
470;  management  of,  470-471 

Altruistic  interests  of  man,  368- 
370 

Amusements,  harmful,  and  crime, 
495-496 

Anarchists,  exclusion  of,  129 

Ancestors,  inheritance  of  charac- 
teristics from,  46;  worship  of, 
287-289 

Animals,  language  of,  255;  wor- 
ship of,  311;  wherein  man  dif- 
fers from,  35S 


Anthropology,  relation  of  sociol- 
ogy to,  10-11;  studies  belong- 
ing to  science  of,  54 

Anti-toxins,  prevention  of  disease 
by,  59,  65 

Arbitration,  of  labor  disputes, 
264;  compulsory,  among  func- 
tions of  the  state,  280 

Arkansas,  negro  population  of, 
159;  experiment  with  negro 
and  Italian  labor  in,  169 

Armenia,  character  of  immi- 
grants from,  98 

Art,  influence  of,  as  social  force, 
395-396;  potency  of,  in  ad- 
vancing civilization,  396 

Artificial  feeding,  as  cause  of  in- 
fant deaths,  244 

Assyrian  immigrants  to  United 
States,  98 

Asylums,  for  insane,  550-551 

Athens,  education  in  early,  315- 
316 

Athletics,  influence  of  geographic 
conditions  on,  26 

Auburn  type  of  prison,  507 

Australia,  marriage  customs 
among  tribes  of,  196;  divorces 
in,  217 

Austria,  increase  in  population 
of,  57 

Austria-Hungary,  statistics  of 
immigration  from,  87 ;  condi- 
tions in,  before  and  during 
World  War,  93-94;  future  im- 
migration from,  104-105;  di- 
vorces in,  217 

Authority,  exercise  of,  by  social 
control,  401-402 

Automobiles,  a  force  operating 
against  urban  migration,  142 

Babylon,  religion  of,  293-294 
Ballot,  immigrants  and  the,  123- 
124 


579 


580 


Index 


Baltimore,  number  of  foreign- 
born  in,  107 

Barnard,  Henry,  influence  of,  on 
educational  methods,  337 

Barter,  early  method  of  ex- 
change, 262 

Belgium,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  birth  and  death  rates 
in,  58;  divorces  in,  217 

Berlin,  increase  in  population  of, 
136 

Binet  tests,  use  of,  with  defec- 
tives, 537 

Biology,  importance  of,  to  sociol- 
ogy, 11-12 ;  approach  to  so- 
ciology by,  37-53;  element  of, 
in  considering  restriction  of 
immigration,  132 

Birth  control,  increase  in  knowl- 
edge of,  64 

Birth  rate,  statistics  of,  in  lead- 
ing nations,  58 ;  causes  of  de- 
crease of,  in  United  States, 
61-64 

Black  Belt,  negro  population  in, 
159 

Black  Hand,  problem  of  the,  116, 
494 

Blindness,  causes  of,  546-547 

Board  schools,  English,  339 

Boas,  F.,  quoted  on  mind  of 
primitive  man,  252-254 

Boston,  Mass.,  Irish  control  of, 
80;  foreign-born  in,  107;  trans- 
portation in,  150 

Brahmanism,  position  of  woman 
under,  207;  characteristics  of, 
301-302 

Biicher  method  of  investigating 
family  expenditures,  238-239 

Buddhism,  position  of  woman  un- 
der, 207-208;  as  a  religion, 
302-304 

Budgets,  family,  238-243 

Business,  woman  in,  210-211; 
methods  of,  in  the  conducting 
of  charity,  478-479 


California,  effect  of  immigration 

on  population  of,  106 
Cambridge    University,    classical 

studies  at,  327 


Camp  Fire  organizations,  work 
of,  in  country,  147 

Canada,  divorces  in,  217 

Canning  industry,  child  labor  in, 
453-454 

Capture,  marriage  by,  202-203 

Carter,  J.  G.,  early  educator,  336 

Caste,  origin  of,  270 ;  steps  in 
mitigation  of  condition  of,  271 

Catholic  immigrants,  social  ef- 
fects of,  120 

Catholics,  divorce  forbidden  by, 
206;  education  among,  328-329 

Ceremony,  function  of,  in  social 
control,  398 

Chaldea,  chief  seat  of  early  cul- 
ture, 293-294 

Character  of  a  people,  as  affected 
by  its  geographic  environment, 
25 

Charity,  as  a  method  of  treating 
poverty,  463-465;  taken  over 
by  state,  466;  outdoor  relief, 
476-478;  organized,  478-479; 
Elberfeld  system  of,  479-481; 
public  vs.  private  systems,  481- 
482;  trend  of  modern,  482 

Chemistry,  relation  of  sociology 
to,  12 

Chicago,  foreign-born  in,  107; 
Poles  in  politics  in,  123-124; 
Domestic  Eelations  Court  in, 
229 

Child  labor,  an  effect  of  poverty, 
450;  history  of,  450-452;  in- 
dustries employing,  452-455 ; 
moral  effects  of,  455-456; 
evil  results  to  nation,  456-457; 
need  of  national  law  against, 
457 

Children,  a  deterrent  of  divorce, 
220;  effect  of  divorce  of  par- 
ents on,  226-227;  neglect  of, 
caused  by  poverty,  457-460; 
care  of  dependent,  471-474; 
delinquency  among,  due  to 
demoralization  of  the  family, 
491-492 

China,  awakening  of,  74;  immi- 
gration from,  to  United  States, 
101-102;  exclusion  of  immi- 
grants from,  125;  condition  of 
women  in,  208;  religions  of, 


Index 


581 


299-301;  education  in,  312- 
313 

Chivalry,  education  under  institu- 
tion of,  324-325 

Christianity,  influence  of,  on 
standard  of  the  family,  205 ; 
effect  of,  on  position  of  woman, 
208-209;  as  one  of  great  world 
religions,  306;  education  under 
early,  319-320;  growth  of  al- 
truism due  to,  391 

Church,  the  country,  146-147 

Ciceronianism,     classical     studies 

.    called,  326 

Cigar  factories,  child  labor  in, 
453 

Cities,  movement  to,  from  the 
country,  135;  growth  of  early, 
135-136;  growth  of,  in  United 
States,  136-138;  causes  of  mi- 
gration to,  138-140;  attrac- 
tions of,  140-142;  forces  oper- 
ating against  migration  to, 
142-143;  problems  of,  149- 
155;  scientific  planning  of, 
155 ;  negro  population  in,  160 ; 
divorces  traceable  to  rapid 
growth  of,  224 

Civilization,  sociology  viewed  as 
study  of,  3 ;  westward  move- 
ment of,  73-75 ;  causes  of,  358- 
359 

Class  consciousness,  a  factor  in 
urban  migration,  141 

Classes,  social,  410-414;  value  of, 
414-415 

Classics,  study  of,  during  Kenais- 
sance,  325-327 

Cleveland,  foreign-born  in,  107 

Climate,  effect  of,  on  population, 
19;  effect  of,  on  character  of 
people,  25,  35-36;  poverty  due 
to  unfavorable,  425;  effect  of, 
on  crime,  491.  See  Geographic 
environment 

Coal  mining,  child  labor  used  in, 
453 

Colonial  policy,  effect  of  geo- 
graphic conditions  on,  23-24 

Colonization  of  negroes,   183-184 

Commerce,  development  of,  a 
cause  of  urban  migration,  138- 
139 ;  study  of,  in  schools,  341 


Commons,  J.  R.,  quoted,  110 

Communication,  modern  means 
of,  and  effect  on  social  organi- 
zation, 407-410 

Confucianism,  position  of  woman 
under,  208;  characteristics  of, 
299-301 

Connecticut,  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on  population  of,  106 

Consanguine  family,  the,  201 

Consent,  marriage  by,  204-205 

Construction,  instinct  of,  351 

Consular  inspection  of  immi- 
grants, 128-129 

Contracts,  regulation  of,  a  func- 
tion of  the  state,  279-280 

Contract  system  in  prisons,  508- 
509 

Control,  social  systems  of,  be- 
coming more  efficient,  558-561. 
See  Social  control 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  quoted  on  social 
organization,  407 

Cost  of  living,  decrease  in  birth 
rate  due  to  increasing,  61-62; 
divorces  traceable  to  increase 
in,  223 

Cotton  mills,  child  labor  in,  452 

Country,  problems  of  the,  143- 
149;  negro  population  in,  160 

Court  of  domestic  relations,  as 
remedy  for  divorce  evil,  229 

Courts,  poverty  traceable  to  de- 
fective, 437-438;  effects  of  de- 
fective; on  crime,  493-494; 
juvenile,  511-513 

Crime,  heredity  and,  50;  effect 
of  immigration  on,  114-116  ;  in 
country  districts,  144;  among 
Agrees,  178-181;  denning  and 
punishment  of,  a  function  of 
the  state,  279;  a  cause  of  pov- 
erty, 446 ;  a  problem  of  malad- 
justment, 485;  what  consti- 
tutes, 485-486;  grades  of,  and 
of  criminals,  486-487;  extent 
of,  and  question  of  increase, 
487-490;  cost  of,  490;  causes 
of,  490-491;  objective  causes 
of,  491-496 ;  subjective  causes, 
496-498;  modern  methods  in 
treatment  of,  511-519;  scien- 
tific attitude  towards,  519-521; 


582 


Index 


relation  between  feeble-mind- 
edness  and,  539-541;  progress 
in  treatment  of,  561 
Criminals,  kinds  of,  486-487; 
classes  from  which  derived, 
496;  age  of,  497;  sex  of,  497- 
498;  Lombroso's  theories,  498- 
499 ;  Goring 's  investigations, 
500-502;  past  and  present 
treatment  of,  503-521.  See 
Prisons 

Curiosity,  instinct  of,  353 
Custom,  aa  a  social  force,  394- 
395 

Dangerous  occupations,  poverty 
caused  by,  434-435 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  cited,  48 

Deafness,  problem  of,  547 

Death  rate,  statistics  of,  in  lead- 
ing nations,  58;  decrease  in, 
and  causes  of,  64-67 

Defectives,  application  of  hered- 
ity to  study  of,  50;  treatment 
of,  by  eugenics,  51-52  ;  care  of, 
a  function  of  the  state,  281; 
the  problem  of,  537-552.  See 
Feeble-mindedness  and  In- 
sanity 

Degeneracy,  caused  by  poverty, 
460-461;  relation  between 
crime  and,  496 

Delaware,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Denmark,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  birth  and  death  rates 
in,  58;  immigrants  to  United 
States  from,  84-86;  statistics 
of  immigration  from,  87;  di- 
vorces in,  217 

Dependants,  care  of,  a  function 
of  the  state,  281 

Desertion,  poverty  caused  by, 
445-446 

Deserts,  influence  of,  on  charac- 
ter of  people,  34 

Detroit,  foreign-born  in,  107 

Devine,  E.  T.,  statistics  of  pov- 
erty by,  449 

De  Vries,  mutation  theory  of, 
42-43 

Disaster,  poverty  caused  by,  440 

Disease,  poverty  due  to,  441-442 ; 


resulting  from  immorality, 
527-530 

Disgust,  instinct  of,  352 

Dishonesty,  poverty  produced  by, 
446 

Dispensaries  for  poor  patients, 
475-476 

Divine  right  theory  of  origin  of 
the  state,  268-269 

Divorce,  attitudes  of  different 
peoples  toward,  205-207;  as  a 
serious  present-day  problem, 
217;  statistics  of,  in  different 
countries,  217-218;  rapid  in- 
crease of,  in  United  States, 
218-219;  persons  who  seek, 
219-221;  grounds  for,  221-223; 
causes  for  increase  in,  223-226 ; 
results  of,  226-227;  proposed 
remedies,  227-232;  caused  by 
sexual  immorality,  529 

Double  standard  of  morali,  ex- 
istence of,  529-530 

Drunkenness,  crime  due  to,  496- 
497 

Dumont,  French  economist,  56 

Duty,  as  a  means  of  social  con- 
trol, 398-399 

Economic  development,  effect  of 
geographic  conditions  on,  21- 
22 

Economic  interests  of  man,  364- 
365 

Economics,  relation  of  sociology 
to,  8-9 

Education,  effect  of,  on  birth 
rate,  62-63;  problem  of  immi- 
grant and,  120-121;  in  the 
country,  144-146;  problem  of, 
in  cities,  153-154;  negro,  171- 
174;  industrial,  of  negro,  184; 
question  of,  for  women,  210; 
moral,  as  a  remedy  for  divorce 
evil,  231-232;  a  function  of 
the  state,  280-281;  an  institu- 
tion of  society,  310;  primitive, 
310-311;  Oriental,  312-314; 
Greek,  314-315;  in  early  Borne, 
317-319;  during  Middle  Ages, 
320-324;  given  by  craft  guilds, 
324-325 ;  during  Eenaissance 
and  Eeformation,  325-329;  in 


Index 


583 


modern  times,  329-331;  re- 
forms in,  331-334;  develop- 
ment of,  in  America,  334-337; 
systems  in  European  countries, 
337-340;  scientific  and  other 
modern  tendencies  in,  340-342  ; 
as  a  means  of  social  contrpl, 
391-394;  poverty  traceable  to 
defects  in  system  of,  437;, 
changed  methods  of,  to  prevent 
poverty,  483;  relation  between 
lack  of,  and  crime,  494-495; 
of  young  people  in  sex  matters, 
533-535 ;  of  feeble-minded, 
542;  progress  in,  558 

Egypt,  religion  of,  294-296 

Elberfeld  system  of  relief  and 
charity  organization,  479-481 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  definition  of  soci- 
ology by,  1-2 ;  quoted,  5 ;  cited 
on  relation  of  juvenile  delin- 
quency to  divorce,  227;  treat- 
ment of  instincts  by,  346; 
quoted  on  instincts,  355-356; 
on  feeling,  357;  cited  on  alms- 
houses,  470 ;  on  decrease  of 
crime  in  England,  480 

Elmira  system  for  treating  pris- 
oners, 508 

Emotions,  human,  357 

Emulation,  instinct  of,  350 

Endogamy,  custom  of,  195-197 

Engel's  laws  in  regard  to  family 
expenses,  243 

England,  birth  and  death  rates 
in,  58;  illiteracy  among  immi- 
grants from,  116;  urban  popu- 
lation of,  137 ;  modern  educa- 
tional system  in,  339-340;  poor 
laws  in,  467-468;  prison  sys- 
tem in,  490 

Environment,  poverty  due  to  un- 
favorable, 438;  relation  of,  to 
crime,  491.  See  Geographic 
environment 

Epilepsy,  relation  of,  to  crime, 
500;  as  a  social  problem,  551- 
552 

Ethical  interests  of  man,  368- 
370 

Ethics,  relation  between  soci- 
ology and,  11;  evolution  of, 
307-308 


Eugenics,  defined,  51;  early  prac- 
tice of,  51;  positive  and  nega- 
tive, 51-52;  definite  and  valu- 
able program  of,  52-53 

Evolution,  stages  of  social,  247- 
251;  of  mind  of  man,  251-260  ; 
of  property,  260-262;  of  in- 
dustry, 262-264;  of  forms  of 
government,  282-283;  of  reli- 
gion, 285-290;  of  ethics,  307- 
308 

Evolutionary  theory  of  origin  of 
the  state,  273-274 

Excitement  an  attraction  of 
cities,  140 

Exogamy  and  endogamy,  195- 
197 

Family,  influence  of  geographic 
conditions  on  life  of,  25;  aver- 
age size  of,  in  United  States, 
61;  evolution  of  the,  189  ff.; 
a  social  unit,  189-190;  the 
horde,  190-193;  period  called 
matriarchy,  193-197 ;  patri- 
archy, 197-200 ;  monogamy, 
200-201;  Morgan's  classifica- 
tion, 201;  evolution  of  mar- 
riage, 201-205;  three  distinct 
stages  of  the,  205;  influence 
of  Christianity  on,  205;  sta- 
bility of  marriage  a  standard 
for  studying,  205-207;  prob- 
lems of  the  modern,  213  ff.; 
problem  of  race  suicide,  213- 
214;  woman's  rights,  214-217; 
problem  of  divorce,  217-232; 
income  of,  232-237;  budgets 
for  the,  238-243;  Engel's  laws 
in  regard  to  expenses  of,  243 ; 
problem  of  infant  mortality, 
244-245;  theory  of  origin  of 
the  state  through  the,  273;  re- 
lation between  size  of,  and 
poverty,  446-447;  crime  result- 
ing from  demoralization  of, 
491-492;  modern  improvement 
in  functioning  of,  555-556.  See 
Marriage 

Famine,  poverty  due  to,  440 
Farmers,  insanity  among,  549 
Farming.     See  Agriculture 
Farms,  child  labor  on,  454-455 


584 


Index 


Feeble-minded,  study  of  the,  in 
light  of  heredity,  50;  found  in 
prisons,  487 

Feeble-mindedness,  seriousness  of 
problem  of,  537;  definition 
and  varieties  of,  537-539;  ex- 
tent of,  539;  relation  of  crime 
and  vice  to,  539-541;  connec- 
tion between  poverty  and,  541- 
542;  and  education,  542; 
causes  of,  542-543;  treatment 
of,  543-546 

Feeling,  as  an  element  of  human 
nature,  356-357 

Fetishes,  worship  of,  289 

Fire,  protection  against,  in  cities, 
152-153 

Flies,  as  cause  of  infant  deaths, 
244 

Florida,  negro  population  of,  159 

Food,  human  instinct  for,  347 

Foreign-born.     See  Immigration 

France,  increase  in  population  of, 
57;  birth  and  death  rates  in, 
58 ;  immigration  from,  to 
United  States,  83-84;  statistics 
of  immigration  from,  87;  illit- 
eracy among  immigrants  from, 
116;  urban  population  of,  137; 
divorces  in,  217;  educational 
system  in,  339;  social  evil  in, 
523 ;  treatment  of  social  evil  in, 
531-532 

French  Canadians,  as  immigrants 
to  United  States,  99-100 

Froebel,  pedagogical  system  of, 
333-334 

Functions  of  the  state,  278-281 

Galton,  Sir  Francis,  and  study  of 
eugenics,  51 

Gambling,  suppression  of,  a  func- 
tion of  the  state,  281 

Games,  character  of,  affected  by 
geographic  conditions,  26 

Gang,  criminals  and  the,  498 

Geographic  environment,  influ- 
ence of,  on  population,  18-20; 
effect  on  life  of  the  people,  20- 
21;  effect  on  economic  devel- 
opment, 21-22;  effect  on  gov- 
ernment and  other  human  in- 
stitutions, 22-25;  influence  on 


the  family,  25;  influence  on 
human  migration,  25-26 ;  influ- 
ence on  recreation,  26;  influ- 
ence on  social  progress,  26-28; 
influence  of  water  on  man,  28- 
32;  influence  of  mountainous 
conditions,  32-33;  influence  of 
plains,  steppes,  and  deserts,  33- 
35;  influence  of  climate,  35- 
36;  as  a  factor  entering  into 
development  of  the  state,  274- 
275;  poverty  resulting  from, 
424-425 

Geography,  relation  of  sociology 
to,  12 

Geology,  relation  of  sociology  to, 
12 

George  Junior  Republic,  methods 
used  at,  473 

Georgia,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Germany,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  birth  and  death  rates 
in,  58;  immigrants  to  United 
States  from,  80-83;  statistics 
of  immigration  from,  87;  prob- 
ability of  future  immigration 
from,  104-105 ;  illiteracy  among 
immigrants  from,  116 ;  urban 
population  of,  137;  divorces  in, 
217;  treatment  of  social  evil 
in,  531 

Germinal  selection  theory  of  in- 
heritance, 41-42 

Ghost  theory  of  religion,  Spen- 
cer's, 288-289 

Glass  industry,  child  labor  in, 
452-453 

Goddard,  H.  H.,  cited  on  feeble- 
mindedness, 540,  542,  543 

Goring,  C.,  study  of  criminality 
by,  500-502 

Government,  effect  of  geographic 
conditions  on,  22-25 ;  problems 
of  municipal,  150-151;  the 
state  distinguished  from,  268; 
evolution  of  forms  of,  282-283; 
poverty  caused  by  defective, 
425-426;  effects  of  defective, 
on  crime,  494;  evolution  of, 
and  growth  in  usefulness,  556 

Graft,  in  municipal  government, 
150-151 


Index 


585 


"Grandfather"  clauses,  disfran- 
chisement  of  negro  by,  175- 
176 

Grant,  Madison,  Passing  of  the 
Great  Race,  cited,  48 

Great  Britain,  figures  of  immi- 
gration from,  87;  divorces  in, 
217.  See  England 

Greece,  immigration  from,  87; 
occupations  and  progress  of 
immigrants  from,  97-98;  reli- 
gion of  ancient,  296-297;  edu- 
cation in  ancient,  314-315 ;  in- 
fluence of,  on  Roman  education, 
317-318 

Groos,  Karl,  cited  on  play,  353 

Groups,  interests  of,  375-379; 
control  of  individuals  by,  379 

Guilds,  growth  and  decline  of, 
263 ;  industrial  education  given 
by,  324-325 


Habit,  as  a  social  force,  394-395 

Habits,  bad,  a  cause  of  poverty, 
444 

Health,  problem  of,  in  cities,  151- 
152;  protection  of  public,  a 
function  of  the  state,  280; 
poverty  traceable  to  poor,  441- 
442 

Heat,  as  cause  of  infant  deaths, 
244 

Hera,  in  Greek  religion,  297 

Herbart,  pedagogical  system  of, 
333 

Heredity,  theories  and  laws  of 
variation  and,  37-44;  difficul- 
ties in  study  of  human,  44-45; 
peculiarities  noted  in  human, 
45-47;  application  of,  to  social 
problems,  47-51;  and  crime, 
498 

Hindus,  as  immigrants  to  United 
States,  103 ;  relations  between 
English  and,  157;  education 
among,  313-314 

History,  relation  of  sociology  to, 
10;  as  affected  by  geographic 
conditions,  18-36 

Holland,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  urban  population  of, 
137;  divorces  in,  217 


Honor  system  for  prisoners,  515- 

517 

Horde,  period  of  the,  190-193 
Hospitals,  for  destitute  sick,  474- 

476;  for  insane,  550-551 
Howard,    G.    E.,    on    polyandry, 

194 
Hungary,  birth  and  death  rates 

in,  58 
Hunter,  Robert,  cited  on  poverty, 

424 
Hygiene,      effect      of     practical 

knowledge  of,  65-66 

Idiots,  feeble-minded  classed  as, 
538 

Ignorance,  poverty  and,  446 

Illinois,  effect  of  immigration  on 
population  of,  106 

Illiteracy,  relation  between  immi- 
gration and,  116-118;  among 
negroes,  171-172 

Imbeciles,  feeble-minded  classed 
as,  538 

Imitation,  instinct  of,  351-352 

Immigrants,  abuses  practiced  on, 
81 

Immigration,  application  of  he- 
redity to  problem  of,  47-48; 
American,  76-77;  causes  of, 
77-78;  from  Ireland,  78-80; 
from  Germany,  80-83;  from 
France,  83-84;  from  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Denmark,  84-86; 
change  in,  from  northern  and 
western  to  southern  and  east- 
ern Europe,  86;  statistics  of, 
87;  from  Italy,  88-92;  from 
Slavic  countries,  92-97;  from 
Greece,  97-98;  Armenian,  As- 
syrian, and  Syrian,  98 ;  Portu- 
guese, 98-99;  French  Canadian, 
99-100;  Japanese,  100-101; 
Chinese,  101-102 ;  Mexican, 
102-103 ;  Hindu,  103 ;  tides  of, 
103-104;  checks  on,  104;  pre- 
dictions concerning,  104-105 ; 
effect  on  population  of  United 
States,  106-108;  effect  on  in- 
dustry, 108-110;  effect  on 
labor,  110-112;  social  effects 
of,  112-122;  political  effects 
of,  122-124;  legislative  restric- 


586 


tions  on,  124-127;  proposed 
legislation  relative  to,  128- 
130;  arguments  for  restriction 
of,  130-132;  future  policy  re- 
garding, 132-133 ;  effect  of,  on 
the  negro,  168-169;  as  a  cause 
of  poverty,  439 

Immorality,  poverty  identified 
with,  444-445;  sexual,  522- 
536  ;  blindness  due  to,  546-547 ; 
progress  in  treatment  of,  562 

Inbreeding,  results  of,  46-47 

Income,  the  family,  232-237; 
spending  of  the,  237-238 

Indeterminate  sentence,  the,  513- 
514 

India,  woman's  position  in,  207; 
caste  system  in,  270;  Brahman- 
ism  in,  301-302 

Indiana,  prison  system  in,  518 

Individual,  as  a  factor  in  devel- 
opment of  the  state,  277;  con- 
trol of,  by  the  group,  379 

Individualism,  growth  of,  en- 
couraged by  modern  education, 
341-342 

Industrial  accidents.  See  Acci- 
dents 

Industry,  effect  of  immigration 
on,  108-110;  rapid  growth  of, 
a  cause  of  urban  migration, 
138;  planning  of  cities  with 
reference  to,  155 ;  the  negro  in, 
170,  173-174,  184;  problems 
caused  by  woman  in,  214-217; 
divorces  traceable  to  entrance 
of  women  into,  224;  evolution 
of,  262-264;  social  effects  of 
development  of,  264-266;  a 
factor  entering  into  develop- 
ment of  the  state,  275-276; 
regulation  of,  a  function  of  the 
State,  280;  training  in,  among 
functions  of  the  state,  281; 
regulation  of  injurious,  a  func- 
tion of  the  state,  281;  right  of 
state  to  carry  on,  282 ;  training 
in,  in  schools,  340-341;  poverty 
resulting  from  bad  organiza- 
tion of,  426-435;  effect  of 
changes  in,  on  poverty,  435- 
437;  child  labor  in,  452-457; 
ill  effects  of  women  in,  457; 


crime  due  to  maladjustment 
of,  493 

Infanticide,  affected  by  geo- 
graphic conditions,  25 

Infant  mortality,  decrease  in,  66- 
67;  problem  of,  244-245 

Infant  schools,  education  in,  330- 
331 

Inheritance,  of  acquired  charac- 
teristics, 37-38 ;  in  matriarchy, 
195.  See  Heredity 

Insane,  found  in  prisons,  487 

Insanity,  problem  of,  547-549; 
forms  of,  549;  treatment  of, 
549-551 

Installment  plan  applied  to  pay- 
ment of  fines,  518 

Instincts,  influence  of,  on  human 
activities,  345-347;  food,  347; 
connected  with  reproduction, 
347-348 ;  self  -  preservatory, 
348-349;  of  pugnacity  and  re- 
sentment, 349-350;  of  rivalry 
and  emulation,  350;  of  socia- 
bility, possession,  construction, 
and  imitation,  350-352 ;  of  self- 
assertion  and  self-abasement, 
352-353;  function  of  play, 
353-354 

Institutions,  for  relief  of  poverty, 
468-476 

Insurance,  industrial,  266;  sick- 
ness and  accident,  439  ;  old  age, 
445;  need  of  comprehensive 
system  of  social,  484 

Intellect,  value  of,  to  man,  358; 
Jesuits  of,  358-359;  interests 
pertaining  to  the,  373-375 

Intemperance,  a  cause  of  poverty, 
444;  crime  caused  by,  496-497 

Interests,  social,  361  ff.;  physical, 
363-364 ;  economic,  364-365 ; 
sociability,  365-366 ;  recrea- 
tion, 367-368;  religious,  368- 
370;  political,  371-372;  aesthet- 
ic or  artistic,  372-373;  intel- 
lectual, 373-375;  group,  375- 
379 

Inventions,  an  indirect  cause  of 
urban  migration,  139;  a  guide 
to  social  evolution  of  man, 
257-260;  made  possible  by  in- 
tellect, 358 


Index 


587 


Ireland,  birth  and  death  rates  in, 
58;  immigrants  to  United 
States  from,  78-80;  statistics 
of  immigration  from,  87; 
crime  among  immigrants  from, 
115;  illiteracy  among  immi- 
grants from,  116;  divorces  in, 
217 

Irish,  activity  of,  in  politics,  123 

Iroquois,  custom  of  exogamy 
among,  196 

Isis,  Egyptian  god,  295 

Islands,  influence  of,  on  man,  31- 
32 

Italy,  increase  in  population  of, 
57;  birth  and  death  rates  in, 
58;  statistics  of  immigration 
from,  87;  reasons  for  immigra- 
tion, 88-90 ;  character  and 
progress  of  immigrants  from, 
91-92;  crime  among  immi- 
grants, 115-116;  illiteracy 
among  immigrants,  116;  pov- 
erty among  immigrants,  120; 
divorces  in,  217 ;  school  of  crim- 
inology in,  498-499 

Jails,  county,  517-518 

Japan,  forward  strides  of,  73-74; 
immigrants  from,  to  United 
States,  100-101;  woman's  po- 
sition in,  207-208 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  interest  of,  in 
education,  335 

Jews,  illiteracy  among  Russian, 
116;  position  of  woman  among, 
209;  religious  sacrifices  among, 
290-291;  education  among  an- 
cient, 314 

Judgment,  lack  of,  a  cause  of 
poverty,  443-444 

Justice,  administration  of,  a 
function  of  the  state,  279 

Juvenile  courts,  trial  of  delin- 
quent children  in,  511-513 

Juvenile  delinquency,  relation  be- 
tween divorce  and,  226-227 

Kamilaroi,  aborigines  of  Aus- 
tralia, 196 

Kentucky,  negro  population  of, 
159 


Kindergarten,  Froebel  the  origi- 
nator of  movement,  333-334 

Knowledge,  effects  of  populariza- 
tion of,  256 

Koran,  the,  322;  laws  of  the,  af- 
fecting woman,  208 

Korea,  emigration  from  Japan  to. 
101 

Labor,  effect  of  immigration  on, 
110-112;  regulation  of  condi- 
tions of,  a  function  of  the 
state,  280 ;  crimes  due  to  un- 
settled conditions  of,  493 

Labor  disturbances,  protection  of 
lives  and  property  during,  152— 
153 

Labor  exchanges,  system  of,  430— 
431 

Labor  unions,  immigrants  and, 
111 ;  early  craft  guilds  as,  263 ; 
child  labor  opposed  by,  456 

Ladies'  Home  Journal,  family 
budgets  from,  240-242 

Lamarck,  theory  of  inheritance 
of  acquired  characteristics 
evolved  by,  37 

Language,  development  of,  255- 
257 

Law,  relation  of  geographic  con- 
ditions to  enforcement  of,  22- 
23;  making  and  enforcing  of, 
a  function  of  the  state,  279; 
as  a  means  of  social  control, 
386-387;  results  of  defective, 
on  crime,  494 

Laziness,  poverty  due  to,  442-443 

Lease  system  of  prison  work, 
509-510 

Le  Play  method  of  investigating 
family  expenditures,  238 

Libraries,  number  of,  in  cities 
compared  with  country,  140- 
141 

Lindsey,  Ben  B.,  judge  of  Den- 
ver juvenile  court,  511 

Liquor  business,  control  of,  a 
function  of  the  state,  281 

Liquor  problem,  progress  in  treat- 
ment of,  561-562 

Literacy  tests  for  immigrants, 
92;  passage  of  Act  for  enforc- 
ing, 126 


588 


Index 


Lombroso,  C.,  school  of  crimi- 
nology of,  498-499;  theory  of 
criminal  type  disproved  by 
Goring,  500 

London,  increase  in  population 
of,  136 

Los  Angeles,  foreign-born  in,  107 

Louisiana,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Lynching,  ill  effects  of,  179-181 

Magic,  relation  of,  to  early  reli- 
gion, 291 

Maine,  Sir  Henry,  Ancient  Law 
by,  197 

Malthus,  theory  of  population  of, 
55-56 

Mann,  Horace,  influence  of,  on 
public  education,  337 

Marriage,  evolution  of,  201-205; 
stability  of,  a  standard  for 
studying  the  family,  205-207; 
divorces  due  to  late,  224-225; 
regulation  and  restriction  of, 
as  remedy  for  divorce  evil, 
230-231 

Maryland,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Massachusetts,  Irish  immigration 
to,  79-80;  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on  population  of,  106 ; 
urban  population  of,  137;  pub- 
lic education  in,  336 

Matriarchy,  period  of,  193-197 

Medical  knowledge,  effect  of  in- 
crease in,  on  death  rate,  65 

Mendelian  law,  chief  features  of, 
43;  applied  to  study  of  negro 
problem,  48-50 

Mental  tests,  for  immigrants, 
129;  for  defectives,  537 

Menzies,  A.,  definition  of  religion 
by,  285 

Messenger  service,  use  of  boys 
for,  455 

Mexicans,  as  immigrants  to 
United  States,  102-103 

Michigan,  effect  of  immigration 
on  population  of,  106 

Middle  Ages,  position  of  woman 
during,  209-210;  education 
during,  320-325 

Migration,     influence     of     geo- 


graphic conditions  on,  25-26; 
causes  of,  69;  paths  of,  69-70; 
motives  for,  71-73;  westward 
trend  of,  73-75;  American  im- 
migration a  part  of  great 
movement  of  races,  76;  motives 
of,  to  United  States,  77-78; 
problem  of  urban,  135-155 

Mind  of  primitive  man,  251-254 

Mines,  child  labor  in,  453 

Minnesota,  effect  of  immigration 
on  population  of,  106 

Mississippi,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Missouri,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Mohammedanism,  position  of  wo- 
man under,  208-209;  as  one  of 
great  world  religions,  304-306  ; 
contributions  of,  to  education, 
322-323 

Monasteries,  education  in,  320- 
322 

Money,  amount  of,  necessary  for 
family,  232-237 

Mongolian  type  of  feeble-minded- 
ness,  543 

Monitor  schools,  education  in, 
330 

Monogamy,  system  of,  200-201 

Montana,  effect  of  immigration 
on  population  of,  106 

Moral  training  in  schools,  341 

Morgan,  L.  H.,  classification  of 
forms  of  the  family  by,  201; 
stages  of  social  evolution  ac- 
cording to,  248-249;  classifica- 
tion of  means  of  subsistence 
by,  250-251 ;  cited  on  origin  of 
state  through  the  family,  273 

Morons,  defectives  classed  as, 
538-539 

Mothers'  pensions,  459 

Mountains,  influence  of  environ- 
ment of,  on  man,  32-33 

Mulattoes,  increase  and  distribu- 
tion of,  in  United  States,  161- 
162;  position  of,  181-182 

Mutation  theory  of  inheritance, 
42-43 

Nation,  steps  in  formation  of  a, 
272-273 


Index 


589 


Nationality,  relation  between 
crime  and,  494 

Natural  selection,  principle  of, 
38-41 

Nature  worship,  characteristics 
of,  286-287 

Negro,  problem  of,  48;  consider- 
ation of  inheritance  of  charac- 
teristics in  connection  with, 
48-50;  statistics  of  illiteracy 
of,  117;  problem  presented  by, 
in  United  States,  157  ff.;  fig- 
ures on  relative  size  of  popu- 
lation, 158-160;  increase  and 
distribution  of  blacks  and  mu- 
lattoes,  161-162;  influence  of 
past  history  on,  162-167;  eco- 
nomic progress  of,  167-171 ; 
progress  in  education  of,  171- 
174;  political  condition  of, 
174-177;  problems  of  poverty 
and  pauperism,  177-178;  as  a 
criminal,  178-181;  immorality 
and  vice  of,  181;  proposed  so- 
lutions of  problem  of,  182-183 ; 
impossible  and  possible  solu- 
tions, 183-188 

Netherlands,  statistics  of  immi- 
gration from,  87 

Newark,  N.  J.,  foreign-born  in, 
107 

New  Jersey,  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on  population  of,  106; 
urban  population  of,  137 

Newsboys,  demoralization  of,  455 

New  York  City,  foreign-born  in, 
107;  crime  among  Italians  in, 
115;  poverty  among  foreign- 
born  in,  118-119;  early  public 
schools  in,  335 

New  York  State,  effect  of  immi- 
gration on  population  of,  106; 
urban  population  of,  137 ;  fe- 
male reformatory  in,  518 

New  Zealand,  divorces  in,  217; 
arbitration  of  labor  disputes 
in,  264 

North  Carolina,  negro  population 
of,  159 

North  Dakota,  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on  population  of,  106 

Norway,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  birth  and  death  rates 


in,  58;  immigrants  to  United 
States  from,  84-86;  statistics 
of  immigration  from,  87;  di- 
vorces in,  217 

Occupation,    determined   by   geo- 
graphic environment,  21-22 
Ocean,  influence  of  the,  on  man, 

31 

Old  age,  unimportance  of,  as  a 
cause  of  poverty,  445 ;  pensions 
for,  476 

Osborn,  H.  F.,  cited,  396 
Osborne,    Thomas    M.,    work   of, 

at  Sing  Sing,  516 
Osiris,  Egyptian  god,  295 
Outdoor  relief  of  poor,  476-478 
Ownership,  municipal,  154-155 
Oxford,  study  of  classics  at,  327 

Page,  T.  N.,  quoted  on  the  negro, 
172;  local  option  plan  of,  for 
treating  negro  problem,  186- 
187 

Papuas  of  New  Guinea,  marriage 
among,  206 

Paris,  increase  in  population  of, 
136 

Parole,  system  of,  for  convicted 
criminals,  514 

Patent  medicines,  as  cause  of  in- 
fant mortality,  245 

Patriarchy,  system  of,  197-200; 
theory  of  origin  of  state  in, 
273 

Patriotism,  development  of  sen- 
timent of,  272-273 

Pauperism,  problem  of,  among 
negroes,  177-178 

Pennsylvania  type  of  prison,  507 

Pensions,  mothers',  459;  old  age, 
476 

Personality,  social  control  by, 
396-398 

Pestalozzi,  educational  theory  of, 
332-333 

Philadelphia,  foreign-born  in, 
107;  Lancastrian  schools  in, 
335 

Physical  interests  of  man,  363- 
364 

Physical  tests  for  immigrants, 
128 


590 


Index 


Physics,  relation  of  sociology  to, 

12 
Piece-price     system     of     prison 

work,  510 

Pittsburgh,  foreign-born  in,  107 
Plains,  influence  of,  on  man,  33- 

34 

Play,  function  of,  353-354 
Playgrounds.     See  Eecreation 
Poles,  standard  of  living  of,  112- 
113;      crime      and      illiteracy 
among,  116 ;  in  politics  in  Chi- 
cago, 123-124 

Police,    municipal,    152;    corrup- 
tion among,  and  crime,  494 
Political  interests  of  man,  371- 

372 

Political  science,  relation  of  so- 
ciology to,  9-10 

Politics,  effect  of  immigration  on, 
122-124;  condition  of  negro  in 
regard  to,  174-177;  woman  in, 
211-212 

Polyandry,  system  of,  194 
Polygyny,  system  of,  195,  199- 
200;  distinction  between  po- 
lygamy and,  199  n. 
Poor-houses.  See  Almshouses 
Population,  influence  of  geo- 
graphic environment  on,  18- 
20;  beginnings  of,  54;  increase 
of,  54-55;  Malthusian  theory 
of,  55-56;  theories  of  Dumont 
and  others,  56-57;  increase  of, 
in  leading  modern  nations,  57- 
59;  increase  of,  in  United 
States,  57,  59-64;  effect  of  im- 
migration on,  in  United  States, 
106-108 ;  relation  of  density  of, 
to  crime,  493 

Portugal,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  immigrants  from,  to 
United  States,  98-99 
Possession,  instinct  of,  351 
Poverty,  as  affected  by  heredity, 
50;  relation  between  immigra- 
tion and,  118-120;  in  the  coun- 
try and  in  the  city,  143-144; 
among  negroes,  177-178;  a 
condition  of  maladjustment, 
419-421;  a  relative  state,  421- 
423;  extent  of,  423-424;  ob- 
jective causes  of,  424-440;  sub- 


jective causes  of,  440-447;  a 
cumulative  condition,  447-448; 
identity  of  causes  and  results, 
448-450;  effects  of,  450-461; 
effects  of  women  in  industry, 
457  ;  neglect  of  children  due  to, 
457-460;  degeneracy  in  part 
due  to,  460-461;  historical 
treatment  of,  463-465;  as- 
sumption of  relief  of,  by  the 
state,  466;  treatment  of,  under 
English  poor  laws,  467-468; 
American  system  of  treatment, 
468-471;  institutions  for  relief 
of,  471-476;  outdoor  relief  of,. 
476-478;  charity  organization, 
478-479;  Elberfeld  system  of 
relief,  479-481;  public  vs.  pri- 
vate relief  of,  481-482;  tend- 
encies of  modern  charity,  482; 
program  for  prevention  of, 
482-484;  possibility  of  elimi- 
nating as  a  problem,  484;  con- 
nection of  crime  and,  485,  492 ; 
connection  between  feeble- 
mindedness and,  541-542 ; 
progress  in  treatment  of,  561 

Prayer  in  primitive  religion,  291 

Prevention,  theory  of,  in  treat- 
ment of  crime,  506 

Prisoners,  percentage  of  foreign- 
born  among,  114-115 

Prisons,  negroes  in,  178 ;  different 
types  of,  506-509;  work  of 
prisoners  in,  509-511.  See 
Crime  and  Criminals 

Probation  of  criminals,  514-515 

Progress,  social,  553-563 

Pjohibition,  effects  of,  on  crime, 
497;  solution  of  liquor  problem 
by,  561-562 

Property,  evolution  of,  260-262 

Prostitution,  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on,  113-114;  problem  of, 
522;  history  of,  522-523; 
causes  of,  523-527;  treatment 
of,  530-536 

Protection,  problem  of,  in  cities, 
152-153;  of  life  and  property, 
a  function  of  the  state,  278- 
279 

Providence,  E.  I.,  foreign-born  in, 
107 


Index 


591 


Prussia,   educational   system   in, 

337-339 
Psychology,  relation  of  sociology 

to,  12-13;  criminal,  498-502 
Public  account  system  of  prison 

work,  510 
Public    opinion,    as    a   means   of 

social  control,  383-385 ;  effects 

of,  385-386 
Public  ownership  in  cities,  154- 

155 
Public  use  system  of  prison  work, 

510-511 

Pugnacity,  instinct  of,  349 
Punaluan  form  of  marriage,  201 
Purchase,  marriage  by,  203-204 

Quarantine,  prevention  of  disease 
through,  59 

Eace  problem,  American,  appli- 
cation of  heredity  to,  48-50. 
See  Negro 

Races,  relation  between,  and 
crime,  494 

Eace  struggle,  theory  of  origin 
of  state  through,  269-273 

Eace  suicide,  problem  of,  213- 
214 

Eailroads,  urban  transportation 
on,  150 

Eeconstruction  period,  demorali- 
zation of  negro  during,  165- 
166 

Eecreation,  relation  of  geo- 
graphic environment  to,  26; 
opportunities  for,  in  cities, 
140;  lack  of  facilities  for,  in 
the  country,  147 ;  problems  con- 
nected with,  in  cities,  154;  re- 
lation between  harmful,  and 
crime,  495-496 

Recreational  interests  of  man, 
367-368 

Reformation,  theory  of,  in  treat- 
ment of  criminal,  505-506 

Religion,  relation  between  geo- 
grap1  ic  conditions  and,  24;  in- 
fluence of  mountain  environ- 
ment on,  33;  relation  between 
immigration  and,  120;  rela- 
tion of,  to  divorce  question, 
220;  divorces  due  to  loss 


of  control  by,  225;  as  a 
factor  entering  into  de- 
velopment of  the  state,  276- 
277;  difficulties  in  discussion 
of,  284-285;  importance  of, 
as  force  in  development  of  civ- 
ilization, 285;  steps  in  evolu- 
tion of,  285-290;  characteris- 
tics of  primitive,  290-291;  im- 
portance of  primitive,  291-292 ; 
growth  of  national,  from  tribal, 
292-293;  of  early  Babylon  and 
Egypt,  293-296;  of  ancient 
Greece,  296-297;  of  Rome, 
297-299;  Confucianism,  299- 
301;  Brahmanism,  301-302; 
Buddhism,  302-304;  Moham- 
medanism, 304-306 ;  as  a  means 
of  social  control,  387-391; 
modern  progress  in,  556-557 

Religious  interests  of  man,  368- 
370 

Eepression,  theory  of,  in  treat- 
ment of  criminal,  504-505;  of 
social  evil,  530-531 

Eeproduetion,  instincts  connected 
with,  347-348 

Eepulsion,  instinct  of,  352 

Eesentment,  instinct  of,  349 

Revenge,  theory  of,  in  treatment 
of  criminal,  503-504 

Rhode  Island,  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on  population  of,  106; 
urban  population  of,  137 

Rivalry,  instinct  of,  350 

Rivers,  influence  of,  on  man,  29 

Rome,  religion  of  early,  297-299 ; 
education  in,  317-319 

Roosevelt,  T.,  as  a  successful  poli- 
tician, 386 

Ross,  E.  A.,  quoted,  123 ;  cited  on 
social  control,  381,  383 

Roumania,  divorces  in,  217 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  educational  the- 
ory of,  331-332 

Rowntree,  B.  S.,  diagram  on  pov- 
erty from,  450 

Rural  schools,  shortcomings  of, 
144-146 

Russia,  future  of,  74-75;  statis- 
tics of  immigration  from,  87; 
character  of  immigrants  from, 
95;  divorces  in,  217 


592 


Index 


Sabbath,  effect  of  immigration  on 
observance  of,  114;  laws 
against  non-observance  of,  an 
example  of  religious  control 
over  state,  276;  codes  in  regard 
to  observance  of,  307 

Sacrifices  in  primitive  religion, 
290-291 

St.  Louis,  foreign-born  in,  107 

Sanitation,  lowered  death  rate 
due  to  improved,  65-66;  re- 
quirements for  public,  a  func- 
tion of  the  state,  280;  defec- 
tive, as  a  producer  of  poverty, 
438 

Scandinavians,  illiteracy  among, 
116 

Schools,  Eoman  system  of,  318; 
of  early  Christians,  320;  social 
control  through,  391-394 ; 
lunches  served  in,  458-459; 
feeble-minded  in,  542.  See 
Education 

Science,  growth  of  education  in, 
329;  increasing  tendency  to- 
ward, in  education,  340 

Sciences,  the  natural,  and  soci- 
ology, 11-12 

Scotland,  birth  and  death  rates 
in,  58;  urban  population  of, 
137 

Segregation,  of  negroes,  184-186 ; 
of  defectives,  544-545 

Self-abasement,  instinct  of,  352 

Self-assertion,  instinct  of,  352 

Selfishness,  a  cause  of  decrease  in 
birth  rate,  62 

Self-preservation,  instinct  of, 
348-349 

Set,  Egyptian  god,  295 

Sexual  selection,  principle  of, 
41 

Shiftlessness,  poverty  due  to, 
442-443 

Siam,  woman's  position  in,  207  • 

Sickness,  poverty  caused  by, 
441-442 ;  institutional  treat- 
ment of,  474-476 

Sickness  insurance,  266 

Sing  Sing,  reform  work  at,  516- 
517 

Slavery,  influence  of  geographic 
conditions  on,  24-25;  as  a 


method    of    treating    poverty, 
463 

Slavs,  as  immigrants  to  United 
States,  92-97;  number  of,  in 
United  States,  and  distribution, 
95;  crime  and  illiteracy  among, 
116 

Slovaks,  illiteracy  among,  116 

Smith,  Eugene,  on  cost  of  crime, 
490 

Sociability,  instinct  of,  350-351 

Sociability  interests,  365-366 

Social  contract  theory  of  origin 
of  the  state,  269 

Social  control,  meaning  of,  380; 
public  opinion  as  a  means  of, 
383-386;  law  and,  386-387; 
religion  one  of  greatest  means 
of,  387-391;  by  means  of 
education,  391-394;  action  of 
custom  and  habit,  394-395; 
influence  of  art,  395-396;  by 
personality,  396-398;  function 
of  ceremony  in,  398;  various 
means  of,  398-399;  general 
characteristics  of,  399-402 

Social  evil.     See  Prostitution 

Social  evolution,  stages  of,  247- 
251 

Socialists,  not  among  excluded 
classes,  129 

Social  progress,  determined  by 
geographic  conditions,  26-28 

Society,  sociology  the  study  of, 
2-4;  definition  of,  4-5;  influ- 
ence of  geographic  environ- 
ment on  development  of,  18- 
42;  causes  of  problems  of, 
traceable  to  the  family,  190; 
organization  of,  404-417;  aim 
and  purpose  of,  415-416;  mal- 
adjustments in,  416-417;  pov- 
erty as  a  problem  of,  419-461; 
problem  of  crime  and  the  crim- 
inal, 485-521;  problem  of 
prostitution,  522-536 ;  problem 
of  defectives,  537-552;  for- 
ward march  of,  and  progress 
made  by,  553-563 

Sociology,  defined,  1-2;  different 
conceptions  of,  2-4;  relation 
of,  to  other  sciences,  6-14;  a 


Index 


593 


general  rather  than  an  exact 
science,  14-16 

South  Carolina,  negro  population 
of,  159 

Spain,  increase  in  population  of, 
57;  birth  and  death  rates  in, 
58 

Spargo,  John,  cited  on  child  vic- 
tims of  poverty,  458 

Sparta,  education  in,  314-315 

Spencer,  Herbert,  ghost  theory  of 
origin  of  religion  of,  288-289 

Spirits,  worship  of,  287-289 

Standard  of  living,  decrease  in 
birth  rate  due  to  advancing, 
61;  effect  of  immigration  on, 
112-114;  relation  of,  to  di- 
vorce, 223 

State,  the,  defined,  268;  theories 
of  origin  of,  268-274;  factors 
entering  into  development  of, 
274-278;  functions  of,  278- 
281 

Sterilization,  formerly  advocated 
for  feeble-minded,  546 

Stone,  A.  EL,  cited  on  negro,  169 

Strikes,  crimes  traceable  to,  493 

Struggle,  theory  of  origin  of  state 
through,  269-273 

Supreme  being,  worship  of  a, 
289-290 

Survival  of  the  fittest,  theory  of, 
38-39 

Suspended  sentence,  system  of, 
513 

Sweated  industries,  child  labor  in, 
454 

Sweden,  increase  in  population 
of,  57;  birth  and  death  rates 
in,  58 ;  immigrants  to  United 
States  from,  84-86;  statistics 
of  immigration  from,  87;  di- 
vorces in,  217 

Switzerland,  vital  statistics  of, 
58,  87,  201,  217 


Tammany  Hall,  control  of,  by 
Irish,  80 ;  purchase  of  votes  by, 
123 

Tennessee,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Texas,  negro  population  of,  159 


Thomas,  W.  I.,  quoted  on  mind 
of  the  savage,  254 

Trade,  regulation  of,  a  function 
of  the  state,  280 

Transportation,  problem  of,  in 
cities,  149-150 

Truancy,  due  to  feeble-minded- 
ness,  542 

Turkey,  immigrants  from,  to 
United  States,  98,  105 ;  poverty 
traceable  to  defective  govern- 
ment in,  425 

Unemployment,  a  cause  of  pov- 
erty, 426-432 

Unemployment  insurance,  266 

United  Kingdom,  vital  statistics 
of,  57,  58 

United  States,  increase  in  popu- 
lation of,  57,  59-64;  decrease 
in  death  rate  in,  64;  the  future 
of,  75;  immigration  problem 
of,  76-105;  effect  of  immigra- 
tion on  population  of,  106-108 ; 
distribution  of  illiterates  in, 
117;  growth  of  cities  in,  136- 
138;  divorces  in,  217-219;  edu- 
cational development  in,  334- 
337 

Universities,  medieval,  323-324 

University  of  Chicago  plan  of  in- 
vestigating family  expendi- 
tures, 239 

Urban  migration,  problem  of, 
135-155.  See  Cities 

Utah,  lack  of  immigration  to, 
107 

Vaccination,  prevention  of  dis- 
ease through,  59 

Vandals,  westward  migration  of, 
72-73 

Variation  and  heredity,  theories 
and  laws  of,  37-44 

Veddahs  of  Ceylon,  marriage 
among,  206 

Vedic  religion,  Brahmanism  based 
on,  301 

Venereal  diseases,  scattering  of, 
by  immigrants,  113-114;  as 
effects  of  immorality,  527-530 ; 
blindness  caused  by,  546 


594 


Index 


Vice,  lowered  birth  rate  resulting 
from,  63-64;  due  to  feeble- 
mindedness, 539-541 

Vienna,  increase  in  population  of, 
136 

Violence,  due  to  labor  disturb- 
ances, 153 

Virginia,  negro  population  of, 
159 

Vital  records  of  leading  nations, 
57-59 

Voting,  by  immigrants,  122-124; 
by  negroes,  174-177 

Wage,  need  of  a  minimum,  483 

Wages,  fluctuations  in,  236-237; 
kept  down  by  competition,  265 ; 
poverty  caused  by  low,  432- 
434;  paid  prisoners  for  extra 
work,  520-521 

Wales,  birth  and  death  rates  in, 
58;  urban  population  of,  137. 
See  Great  Britain 

War,  consideration  of  heredity 
in  connection  with,  50-51 ; 
effect  of  prevention  of,  on 
death  rate,  67;  a  producer  of 
poverty,  440 

Ward,  L.  F.,  treatment  of  feel- 
ing by,  356-357 

Warner,  A.  G.,  American  Chari- 
ties, cited,  474;  on  outdoor  re- 
lief, 476-478 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  171;  in- 
dustrial education  of  negroes 
by,  184 

Wastes,  disposal  of,  in  cities,  152 

Water,  influence  of,  on  man,  28- 
32 

Wealth,  a  factor  entering  into 
development  of  the  state,  275- 
276 

Weismann,  germinal  selection 
theory  of,  41-42 

White  slave  traffic,  526,  529,  533, 
535 


Wisconsin,  effect  of  immigration 
on  population  of,  82,  106 

Woman's  rights,  problem  of, 
214-217 

Women,  position  of,  as  affected 
by  geographic  environment,  25 ; 
position  of,  among  immigrants, 
112-113,  116,  118;  proportion 
of,  among  immigrants,  121; 
position  under  matriarchy,  193- 
197;  under  patriarchy,  197- 
200;  influence  of  Christianity 
on  position  of,  205;  under  dif- 
ferent religions,  207-209;  sta- 
tus at  present  time,  209-210; 
questions  concerning  education 
of,  210;  invasion  of  field  of 
business  by,  210-211;  position 
of,  in  social  life,  211;  entrance 
into  politics,  211-212;  divorces 
traceable  to  changed  position 
of,  224;  instinct  in,  354-355; 
percentage  of,  among  criminals, 
497-498;  separate  prisons  for 
criminal,  518 ;  provisions  for, 
in  jails  and  police  stations, 
520;  feeble-mindedness  among, 
540.  See  Social  evil 

Wonder,  instinct  of,  353 

Work,  systems  of,  in  prisons, 
509-511 

World  War,  social  advances  re- 
sulting from,  563 

Xenophon,  alarm  of,  over  urban 
migration  of  his  day,  136 

Yazoo  Delta  region,  negroes  in, 

179 

T.  M.  C.  A.,  the  country,  147 
York,  cathedral  school  at,  322 
Yverdon,  Pestalozzi's  school  at, 

332 

Zeus,  in  Greek  religion,  297 


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